diff --git a/ci/dictionary.txt b/ci/dictionary.txt index c83a6268d0..92cb8e5096 100644 --- a/ci/dictionary.txt +++ b/ci/dictionary.txt @@ -602,6 +602,7 @@ unsynchronized Unyank UpperCamelCase URIs +urls UsefulType username USERPROFILE diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-04/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-04/src/main.rs index 55c873b235..9bb230bec4 100644 --- a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-04/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-04/src/main.rs @@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ use trpl::Html; fn main() { let args: Vec = std::env::args().collect(); - trpl::run(async { + trpl::block_on(async { let url = &args[1]; match page_title(url).await { Some(title) => println!("The title for {url} was {title}"), diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-05/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-05/src/main.rs index 5b7ae2b5b9..df8d502303 100644 --- a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-05/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-05/src/main.rs @@ -6,12 +6,12 @@ use trpl::{Either, Html}; fn main() { let args: Vec = std::env::args().collect(); - trpl::run(async { + trpl::block_on(async { let title_fut_1 = page_title(&args[1]); let title_fut_2 = page_title(&args[2]); let (url, maybe_title) = - match trpl::race(title_fut_1, title_fut_2).await { + match trpl::select(title_fut_1, title_fut_2).await { Either::Left(left) => left, Either::Right(right) => right, }; diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-06/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-06/src/main.rs index 8eb415ee73..2fe6a5f29d 100644 --- a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-06/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-06/src/main.rs @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test use std::time::Duration; fn main() { - trpl::run(async { + trpl::block_on(async { trpl::spawn_task(async { for i in 1..10 { println!("hi number {i} from the first task!"); diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-07/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-07/src/main.rs index 5415e1fcee..67c735fd39 100644 --- a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-07/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-07/src/main.rs @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test use std::time::Duration; fn main() { - trpl::run(async { + trpl::block_on(async { // ANCHOR: handle let handle = trpl::spawn_task(async { for i in 1..10 { diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-08/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-08/src/main.rs index 2cd5de9bae..ef52e32840 100644 --- a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-08/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-08/src/main.rs @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test use std::time::Duration; fn main() { - trpl::run(async { + trpl::block_on(async { // ANCHOR: join let fut1 = async { for i in 1..10 { diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-09/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-09/src/main.rs index e1b8fa3f3d..1b0ca050a1 100644 --- a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-09/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-09/src/main.rs @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test fn main() { - trpl::run(async { + trpl::block_on(async { // ANCHOR: channel let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-10/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-10/src/main.rs index e11ae51787..2a98d028bb 100644 --- a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-10/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-10/src/main.rs @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test use std::time::Duration; fn main() { - trpl::run(async { + trpl::block_on(async { // ANCHOR: many-messages let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-11/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-11/src/main.rs index f8e641d6d0..2cabfb0d42 100644 --- a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-11/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-11/src/main.rs @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test use std::time::Duration; fn main() { - trpl::run(async { + trpl::block_on(async { let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); // ANCHOR: futures diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-12/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-12/src/main.rs index 15cdf55488..9990db9c9b 100644 --- a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-12/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-12/src/main.rs @@ -3,11 +3,13 @@ extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test use std::time::Duration; fn main() { - trpl::run(async { + trpl::block_on(async { // ANCHOR: with-move let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); let tx_fut = async move { + // --snip-- + // ANCHOR_END: with-move let vals = vec![ String::from("hi"), String::from("from"), @@ -28,6 +30,5 @@ fn main() { }; trpl::join(tx_fut, rx_fut).await; - // ANCHOR_END: with-move }); } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-13/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-13/src/main.rs index d5a2e56e34..32634a1ffc 100644 --- a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-13/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-13/src/main.rs @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test use std::time::Duration; fn main() { - trpl::run(async { + trpl::block_on(async { // ANCHOR: here let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); @@ -42,7 +42,7 @@ fn main() { } }; - trpl::join3(tx1_fut, tx_fut, rx_fut).await; + trpl::join!(tx1_fut, tx_fut, rx_fut); // ANCHOR_END: here }); } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-14/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-14/src/main.rs index 0bb425d366..fa5cfe3c80 100644 --- a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-14/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-14/src/main.rs @@ -1,48 +1,16 @@ extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test -use std::time::Duration; +use std::{thread, time::Duration}; fn main() { - trpl::run(async { - let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); - - let tx1 = tx.clone(); - let tx1_fut = async move { - let vals = vec![ - String::from("hi"), - String::from("from"), - String::from("the"), - String::from("future"), - ]; - - for val in vals { - tx1.send(val).unwrap(); - trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; - } - }; - - let rx_fut = async { - while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { - println!("received '{value}'"); - } - }; - - let tx_fut = async move { - let vals = vec![ - String::from("more"), - String::from("messages"), - String::from("for"), - String::from("you"), - ]; - - for val in vals { - tx.send(val).unwrap(); - trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; - } - }; - - // ANCHOR: here - trpl::join!(tx1_fut, tx_fut, rx_fut); - // ANCHOR_END: here + trpl::block_on(async { + // We will call `slow` here later }); } + +// ANCHOR: slow +fn slow(name: &str, ms: u64) { + thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(ms)); + println!("'{name}' ran for {ms}ms"); +} +// ANCHOR_END: slow diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-15/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-15/src/main.rs index 249ffd0f68..a1ec6b233d 100644 --- a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-15/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-15/src/main.rs @@ -1,50 +1,35 @@ extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test -use std::time::Duration; +use std::{thread, time::Duration}; fn main() { - trpl::run(async { - let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); - - let tx1 = tx.clone(); - let tx1_fut = async move { - let vals = vec![ - String::from("hi"), - String::from("from"), - String::from("the"), - String::from("future"), - ]; - - for val in vals { - tx1.send(val).unwrap(); - trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; - } - }; - - let rx_fut = async { - while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { - println!("received '{value}'"); - } + trpl::block_on(async { + // ANCHOR: slow-futures + let a = async { + println!("'a' started."); + slow("a", 30); + slow("a", 10); + slow("a", 20); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(50)).await; + println!("'a' finished."); }; - let tx_fut = async move { - let vals = vec![ - String::from("more"), - String::from("messages"), - String::from("for"), - String::from("you"), - ]; - - for val in vals { - tx.send(val).unwrap(); - trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; - } + let b = async { + println!("'b' started."); + slow("b", 75); + slow("b", 10); + slow("b", 15); + slow("b", 350); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(50)).await; + println!("'b' finished."); }; - // ANCHOR: here - let futures = vec![tx1_fut, rx_fut, tx_fut]; - - trpl::join_all(futures).await; - // ANCHOR_END: here + trpl::select(a, b).await; + // ANCHOR_END: slow-futures }); } + +fn slow(name: &str, ms: u64) { + thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(ms)); + println!("'{name}' ran for {ms}ms"); +} diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-16/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-16/src/main.rs index 9fefdcf463..f4e64f5cef 100644 --- a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-16/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-16/src/main.rs @@ -1,51 +1,42 @@ extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test -use std::time::Duration; +use std::{thread, time::Duration}; fn main() { - trpl::run(async { - let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); - - let tx1 = tx.clone(); - let tx1_fut = async move { - let vals = vec![ - String::from("hi"), - String::from("from"), - String::from("the"), - String::from("future"), - ]; - - for val in vals { - tx1.send(val).unwrap(); - trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; - } - }; - - let rx_fut = async { - while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { - println!("received '{value}'"); - } + trpl::block_on(async { + // ANCHOR: here + let one_ms = Duration::from_millis(1); + + let a = async { + println!("'a' started."); + slow("a", 30); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + slow("a", 10); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + slow("a", 20); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + println!("'a' finished."); }; - let tx_fut = async move { - let vals = vec![ - String::from("more"), - String::from("messages"), - String::from("for"), - String::from("you"), - ]; - - for val in vals { - tx.send(val).unwrap(); - trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; - } + let b = async { + println!("'b' started."); + slow("b", 75); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + slow("b", 10); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + slow("b", 15); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + slow("b", 350); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + println!("'b' finished."); }; - - // ANCHOR: here - let futures = - vec![Box::new(tx1_fut), Box::new(rx_fut), Box::new(tx_fut)]; - - trpl::join_all(futures).await; // ANCHOR_END: here + + trpl::select(a, b).await; }); } + +fn slow(name: &str, ms: u64) { + thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(ms)); + println!("'{name}' ran for {ms}ms"); +} diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/Cargo.lock index 7dc48e0d98..7efd72f633 100644 --- a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/Cargo.lock +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/Cargo.lock @@ -1186,9 +1186,9 @@ dependencies = [ [[package]] name = "tokio-stream" -version = "0.1.16" +version = "0.1.15" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "4f4e6ce100d0eb49a2734f8c0812bcd324cf357d21810932c5df6b96ef2b86f1" +checksum = "267ac89e0bec6e691e5813911606935d77c476ff49024f98abcea3e7b15e37af" dependencies = [ "futures-core", "pin-project-lite", diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/output.txt b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/output.txt deleted file mode 100644 index b928fb6020..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/output.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1 +0,0 @@ -$ diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/src/main.rs index b58c749310..07c13c0b1a 100644 --- a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/src/main.rs @@ -1,51 +1,40 @@ extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test -use std::time::Duration; +use std::{thread, time::Duration}; fn main() { - trpl::run(async { - let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); - - let tx1 = tx.clone(); - let tx1_fut = async move { - let vals = vec![ - String::from("hi"), - String::from("from"), - String::from("the"), - String::from("future"), - ]; - - for val in vals { - tx1.send(val).unwrap(); - trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; - } - }; - - let rx_fut = async { - while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { - println!("received '{value}'"); - } + trpl::block_on(async { + // ANCHOR: yields + let a = async { + println!("'a' started."); + slow("a", 30); + trpl::yield_now().await; + slow("a", 10); + trpl::yield_now().await; + slow("a", 20); + trpl::yield_now().await; + println!("'a' finished."); }; - let tx_fut = async move { - let vals = vec![ - String::from("more"), - String::from("messages"), - String::from("for"), - String::from("you"), - ]; - - for val in vals { - tx.send(val).unwrap(); - trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; - } + let b = async { + println!("'b' started."); + slow("b", 75); + trpl::yield_now().await; + slow("b", 10); + trpl::yield_now().await; + slow("b", 15); + trpl::yield_now().await; + slow("b", 350); + trpl::yield_now().await; + println!("'b' finished."); }; + // ANCHOR_END: yields - // ANCHOR: here - let futures: Vec>> = - vec![Box::new(tx1_fut), Box::new(rx_fut), Box::new(tx_fut)]; - // ANCHOR_END: here - - trpl::join_all(futures).await; + trpl::select(a, b).await; }); } + +fn slow(name: &str, ms: u64) { + thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(ms)); + println!("'{name}' ran for {ms}ms"); +} diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-18/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-18/src/main.rs index 37c0c16736..a3f2f48d00 100644 --- a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-18/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-18/src/main.rs @@ -1,57 +1,21 @@ extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test -// ANCHOR: here -use std::pin::Pin; - -// -- snip -- - -// ANCHOR_END: here use std::time::Duration; fn main() { - trpl::run(async { - let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); - - let tx1 = tx.clone(); - let tx1_fut = async move { - let vals = vec![ - String::from("hi"), - String::from("from"), - String::from("the"), - String::from("future"), - ]; - - for val in vals { - tx1.send(val).unwrap(); - trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; - } - }; - - let rx_fut = async { - while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { - println!("received '{value}'"); - } + trpl::block_on(async { + // ANCHOR: here + let slow = async { + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)).await; + "Finally finished" }; - let tx_fut = async move { - let vals = vec![ - String::from("more"), - String::from("messages"), - String::from("for"), - String::from("you"), - ]; - - for val in vals { - tx.send(val).unwrap(); - trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + match timeout(slow, Duration::from_secs(2)).await { + Ok(message) => println!("Succeeded with '{message}'"), + Err(duration) => { + println!("Failed after {} seconds", duration.as_secs()) } - }; - - // ANCHOR: here - let futures: Vec>>> = - vec![Box::pin(tx1_fut), Box::pin(rx_fut), Box::pin(tx_fut)]; + } // ANCHOR_END: here - - trpl::join_all(futures).await; }); } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-19/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-19/src/main.rs index 1133c64eea..bfcb4c119b 100644 --- a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-19/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-19/src/main.rs @@ -1,68 +1,28 @@ extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test -// ANCHOR: here -use std::pin::{Pin, pin}; - -// -- snip -- - -// ANCHOR_END: here use std::time::Duration; fn main() { - trpl::run(async { - let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); - - let tx1 = tx.clone(); - // ANCHOR: here - let tx1_fut = pin!(async move { - // --snip-- - // ANCHOR_END: here - let vals = vec![ - String::from("hi"), - String::from("from"), - String::from("the"), - String::from("future"), - ]; - - for val in vals { - tx1.send(val).unwrap(); - trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + trpl::block_on(async { + let slow = async { + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)).await; + "Finally finished" + }; + + match timeout(slow, Duration::from_secs(2)).await { + Ok(message) => println!("Succeeded with '{message}'"), + Err(duration) => { + println!("Failed after {} seconds", duration.as_secs()) } - // ANCHOR: here - }); - - // ANCHOR_END: here - // ANCHOR: here - let rx_fut = pin!(async { - // --snip-- - // ANCHOR_END: here - while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { - println!("received '{value}'"); - } - // ANCHOR: here - }); - - let tx_fut = pin!(async move { - // --snip-- - // ANCHOR_END: here - let vals = vec![ - String::from("more"), - String::from("messages"), - String::from("for"), - String::from("you"), - ]; - - for val in vals { - tx.send(val).unwrap(); - trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; - } - // ANCHOR: here - }); - - let futures: Vec>> = - vec![tx1_fut, rx_fut, tx_fut]; - // ANCHOR_END: here - - trpl::join_all(futures).await; + } }); } + +// ANCHOR: declaration +async fn timeout( + future_to_try: F, + max_time: Duration, +) -> Result { + // Here is where our implementation will go! +} +// ANCHOR_END: declaration diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-20/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-20/Cargo.lock index 7efd72f633..e3f560b67c 100644 --- a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-20/Cargo.lock +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-20/Cargo.lock @@ -360,9 +360,9 @@ dependencies = [ [[package]] name = "httparse" -version = "1.9.5" +version = "1.9.4" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "7d71d3574edd2771538b901e6549113b4006ece66150fb69c0fb6d9a2adae946" +checksum = "0fcc0b4a115bf80b728eb8ea024ad5bd707b615bfed49e0665b6e0f86fd082d9" [[package]] name = "hyper" @@ -403,9 +403,9 @@ dependencies = [ [[package]] name = "hyper-util" -version = "0.1.9" +version = "0.1.8" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "41296eb09f183ac68eec06e03cdbea2e759633d4067b2f6552fc2e009bcad08b" +checksum = "da62f120a8a37763efb0cf8fdf264b884c7b8b9ac8660b900c8661030c00e6ba" dependencies = [ "bytes", "futures-channel", @@ -416,6 +416,7 @@ dependencies = [ "pin-project-lite", "socket2", "tokio", + "tower", "tower-service", "tracing", ] @@ -432,9 +433,9 @@ dependencies = [ [[package]] name = "ipnet" -version = "2.10.1" +version = "2.10.0" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "ddc24109865250148c2e0f3d25d4f0f479571723792d3802153c60922a4fb708" +checksum = "187674a687eed5fe42285b40c6291f9a01517d415fad1c3cbc6a9f778af7fcd4" [[package]] name = "itoa" @@ -552,9 +553,9 @@ dependencies = [ [[package]] name = "once_cell" -version = "1.20.2" +version = "1.19.0" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "1261fe7e33c73b354eab43b1273a57c8f967d0391e80353e51f764ac02cf6775" +checksum = "3fdb12b2476b595f9358c5161aa467c2438859caa136dec86c26fdd2efe17b92" [[package]] name = "parking_lot" @@ -675,6 +676,26 @@ dependencies = [ "siphasher", ] +[[package]] +name = "pin-project" +version = "1.1.5" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "b6bf43b791c5b9e34c3d182969b4abb522f9343702850a2e57f460d00d09b4b3" +dependencies = [ + "pin-project-internal", +] + +[[package]] +name = "pin-project-internal" +version = "1.1.5" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "2f38a4412a78282e09a2cf38d195ea5420d15ba0602cb375210efbc877243965" +dependencies = [ + "proc-macro2", + "quote", + "syn", +] + [[package]] name = "pin-project-lite" version = "0.2.14" @@ -800,18 +821,18 @@ dependencies = [ [[package]] name = "redox_syscall" -version = "0.5.7" +version = "0.5.4" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "9b6dfecf2c74bce2466cabf93f6664d6998a69eb21e39f4207930065b27b771f" +checksum = "0884ad60e090bf1345b93da0a5de8923c93884cd03f40dfcfddd3b4bee661853" dependencies = [ "bitflags", ] [[package]] name = "reqwest" -version = "0.12.8" +version = "0.12.7" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "f713147fbe92361e52392c73b8c9e48c04c6625bce969ef54dc901e58e042a7b" +checksum = "f8f4955649ef5c38cc7f9e8aa41761d48fb9677197daea9984dc54f56aad5e63" dependencies = [ "base64", "bytes", @@ -878,9 +899,9 @@ checksum = "583034fd73374156e66797ed8e5b0d5690409c9226b22d87cb7f19821c05d152" [[package]] name = "rustls" -version = "0.23.14" +version = "0.23.13" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "415d9944693cb90382053259f89fbb077ea730ad7273047ec63b19bc9b160ba8" +checksum = "f2dabaac7466917e566adb06783a81ca48944c6898a1b08b9374106dd671f4c8" dependencies = [ "once_cell", "ring", @@ -892,18 +913,19 @@ dependencies = [ [[package]] name = "rustls-pemfile" -version = "2.2.0" +version = "2.1.3" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "dce314e5fee3f39953d46bb63bb8a46d40c2f8fb7cc5a3b6cab2bde9721d6e50" +checksum = "196fe16b00e106300d3e45ecfcb764fa292a535d7326a29a5875c579c7417425" dependencies = [ + "base64", "rustls-pki-types", ] [[package]] name = "rustls-pki-types" -version = "1.9.0" +version = "1.8.0" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "0e696e35370c65c9c541198af4543ccd580cf17fc25d8e05c5a242b202488c55" +checksum = "fc0a2ce646f8655401bb81e7927b812614bd5d91dbc968696be50603510fcaf0" [[package]] name = "rustls-webpki" @@ -1195,6 +1217,27 @@ dependencies = [ "tokio", ] +[[package]] +name = "tower" +version = "0.4.13" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "b8fa9be0de6cf49e536ce1851f987bd21a43b771b09473c3549a6c853db37c1c" +dependencies = [ + "futures-core", + "futures-util", + "pin-project", + "pin-project-lite", + "tokio", + "tower-layer", + "tower-service", +] + +[[package]] +name = "tower-layer" +version = "0.3.3" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "121c2a6cda46980bb0fcd1647ffaf6cd3fc79a013de288782836f6df9c48780e" + [[package]] name = "tower-service" version = "0.3.3" @@ -1239,9 +1282,9 @@ checksum = "e421abadd41a4225275504ea4d6566923418b7f05506fbc9c0fe86ba7396114b" [[package]] name = "unicode-bidi" -version = "0.3.17" +version = "0.3.15" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "5ab17db44d7388991a428b2ee655ce0c212e862eff1768a455c58f9aad6e7893" +checksum = "08f95100a766bf4f8f28f90d77e0a5461bbdb219042e7679bebe79004fed8d75" [[package]] name = "unicode-ident" diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-20/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-20/src/main.rs index 12ab2704b2..267d8647a8 100644 --- a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-20/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-20/src/main.rs @@ -1,14 +1,37 @@ extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test +use std::time::Duration; + +// ANCHOR: implementation +use trpl::Either; + +// --snip-- + +// ANCHOR_END: implementation fn main() { - trpl::run(async { - // ANCHOR: here - let a = async { 1u32 }; - let b = async { "Hello!" }; - let c = async { true }; - - let (a_result, b_result, c_result) = trpl::join!(a, b, c); - println!("{a_result}, {b_result}, {c_result}"); - // ANCHOR_END: here + trpl::block_on(async { + let slow = async { + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)).await; + "Finally finished" + }; + + match timeout(slow, Duration::from_secs(2)).await { + Ok(message) => println!("Succeeded with '{message}'"), + Err(duration) => { + println!("Failed after {} seconds", duration.as_secs()) + } + } }); } + +// ANCHOR: implementation +async fn timeout( + future_to_try: F, + max_time: Duration, +) -> Result { + match trpl::select(future_to_try, trpl::sleep(max_time)).await { + Either::Left(output) => Ok(output), + Either::Right(_) => Err(max_time), + } +} +// ANCHOR_END: implementation diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-21/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-21/Cargo.lock index 00a82573e5..1a59804c89 100644 --- a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-21/Cargo.lock +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-21/Cargo.lock @@ -4,9 +4,9 @@ version = 3 [[package]] name = "addr2line" -version = "0.21.0" +version = "0.22.0" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "8a30b2e23b9e17a9f90641c7ab1549cd9b44f296d3ccbf309d2863cfe398a0cb" +checksum = "6e4503c46a5c0c7844e948c9a4d6acd9f50cccb4de1c48eb9e291ea17470c678" dependencies = [ "gimli", ] @@ -45,9 +45,9 @@ checksum = "0c4b4d0bd25bd0b74681c0ad21497610ce1b7c91b1022cd21c80c6fbdd9476b0" [[package]] name = "backtrace" -version = "0.3.71" +version = "0.3.73" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "26b05800d2e817c8b3b4b54abd461726265fa9789ae34330622f2db9ee696f9d" +checksum = "5cc23269a4f8976d0a4d2e7109211a419fe30e8d88d677cd60b6bc79c5732e0a" dependencies = [ "addr2line", "cc", @@ -66,9 +66,9 @@ checksum = "72b3254f16251a8381aa12e40e3c4d2f0199f8c6508fbecb9d91f575e0fbb8c6" [[package]] name = "bitflags" -version = "2.5.0" +version = "2.6.0" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "cf4b9d6a944f767f8e5e0db018570623c85f3d925ac718db4e06d0187adb21c1" +checksum = "b048fb63fd8b5923fc5aa7b340d8e156aec7ec02f0c78fa8a6ddc2613f6f71de" [[package]] name = "bumpalo" @@ -90,9 +90,9 @@ checksum = "428d9aa8fbc0670b7b8d6030a7fadd0f86151cae55e4dbbece15f3780a3dfaf3" [[package]] name = "cc" -version = "1.0.97" +version = "1.0.99" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "099a5357d84c4c61eb35fc8eafa9a79a902c2f76911e5747ced4e032edd8d9b4" +checksum = "96c51067fd44124faa7f870b4b1c969379ad32b2ba805aa959430ceaa384f695" [[package]] name = "cfg-if" @@ -300,9 +300,9 @@ dependencies = [ [[package]] name = "gimli" -version = "0.28.1" +version = "0.29.0" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "4271d37baee1b8c7e4b708028c57d816cf9d2434acb33a549475f78c181f6253" +checksum = "40ecd4077b5ae9fd2e9e169b102c6c330d0605168eb0e8bf79952b256dbefffd" [[package]] name = "hermit-abi" @@ -453,9 +453,9 @@ dependencies = [ [[package]] name = "libc" -version = "0.2.154" +version = "0.2.155" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "ae743338b92ff9146ce83992f766a31066a91a8c84a45e0e9f21e7cf6de6d346" +checksum = "97b3888a4aecf77e811145cadf6eef5901f4782c53886191b2f693f24761847c" [[package]] name = "lock_api" @@ -495,9 +495,9 @@ dependencies = [ [[package]] name = "memchr" -version = "2.7.2" +version = "2.7.4" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "6c8640c5d730cb13ebd907d8d04b52f55ac9a2eec55b440c8892f40d56c76c1d" +checksum = "78ca9ab1a0babb1e7d5695e3530886289c18cf2f87ec19a575a0abdce112e3a3" [[package]] name = "mime" @@ -507,9 +507,9 @@ checksum = "6877bb514081ee2a7ff5ef9de3281f14a4dd4bceac4c09388074a6b5df8a139a" [[package]] name = "miniz_oxide" -version = "0.7.2" +version = "0.7.4" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "9d811f3e15f28568be3407c8e7fdb6514c1cda3cb30683f15b6a1a1dc4ea14a7" +checksum = "b8a240ddb74feaf34a79a7add65a741f3167852fba007066dcac1ca548d89c08" dependencies = [ "adler", ] @@ -543,9 +543,9 @@ dependencies = [ [[package]] name = "object" -version = "0.32.2" +version = "0.36.0" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "a6a622008b6e321afc04970976f62ee297fdbaa6f95318ca343e3eebb9648441" +checksum = "576dfe1fc8f9df304abb159d767a29d0476f7750fbf8aa7ad07816004a207434" dependencies = [ "memchr", ] @@ -558,9 +558,9 @@ checksum = "1261fe7e33c73b354eab43b1273a57c8f967d0391e80353e51f764ac02cf6775" [[package]] name = "parking_lot" -version = "0.12.2" +version = "0.12.3" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "7e4af0ca4f6caed20e900d564c242b8e5d4903fdacf31d3daf527b66fe6f42fb" +checksum = "f1bf18183cf54e8d6059647fc3063646a1801cf30896933ec2311622cc4b9a27" dependencies = [ "lock_api", "parking_lot_core", @@ -704,9 +704,9 @@ checksum = "925383efa346730478fb4838dbe9137d2a47675ad789c546d150a6e1dd4ab31c" [[package]] name = "proc-macro2" -version = "1.0.82" +version = "1.0.85" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "8ad3d49ab951a01fbaafe34f2ec74122942fe18a3f9814c3268f1bb72042131b" +checksum = "22244ce15aa966053a896d1accb3a6e68469b97c7f33f284b99f0d576879fc23" dependencies = [ "unicode-ident", ] @@ -800,9 +800,9 @@ dependencies = [ [[package]] name = "redox_syscall" -version = "0.5.1" +version = "0.5.7" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "469052894dcb553421e483e4209ee581a45100d31b4018de03e5a7ad86374a7e" +checksum = "9b6dfecf2c74bce2466cabf93f6664d6998a69eb21e39f4207930065b27b771f" dependencies = [ "bitflags", ] @@ -1093,9 +1093,9 @@ checksum = "13c2bddecc57b384dee18652358fb23172facb8a2c51ccc10d74c157bdea3292" [[package]] name = "syn" -version = "2.0.63" +version = "2.0.66" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "bf5be731623ca1a1fb7d8be6f261a3be6d3e2337b8a1f97be944d020c8fcb704" +checksum = "c42f3f41a2de00b01c0aaad383c5a45241efc8b2d1eda5661812fda5f3cdcff5" dependencies = [ "proc-macro2", "quote", @@ -1159,9 +1159,9 @@ checksum = "1f3ccbac311fea05f86f61904b462b55fb3df8837a366dfc601a0161d0532f20" [[package]] name = "tokio" -version = "1.37.0" +version = "1.38.0" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "1adbebffeca75fcfd058afa480fb6c0b81e165a0323f9c9d39c9697e37c46787" +checksum = "ba4f4a02a7a80d6f274636f0aa95c7e383b912d41fe721a31f29e29698585a4a" dependencies = [ "backtrace", "bytes", @@ -1186,9 +1186,9 @@ dependencies = [ [[package]] name = "tokio-stream" -version = "0.1.16" +version = "0.1.15" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "4f4e6ce100d0eb49a2734f8c0812bcd324cf357d21810932c5df6b96ef2b86f1" +checksum = "267ac89e0bec6e691e5813911606935d77c476ff49024f98abcea3e7b15e37af" dependencies = [ "futures-core", "pin-project-lite", diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-21/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-21/Cargo.toml index 10702bd9f5..e5c8a84843 100644 --- a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-21/Cargo.toml +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-21/Cargo.toml @@ -4,6 +4,5 @@ version = "0.1.0" edition = "2024" # See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html - [dependencies] trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-21/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-21/src/main.rs index 308c14a4ac..7900b39ce4 100644 --- a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-21/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-21/src/main.rs @@ -1,23 +1,15 @@ extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test -use std::time::Duration; - fn main() { - trpl::run(async { - // ANCHOR: here - let slow = async { - println!("'slow' started."); - trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(100)).await; - println!("'slow' finished."); - }; - - let fast = async { - println!("'fast' started."); - trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(50)).await; - println!("'fast' finished."); - }; - - trpl::race(slow, fast).await; - // ANCHOR_END: here + trpl::block_on(async { + // ANCHOR: stream + let values = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]; + let iter = values.iter().map(|n| n * 2); + let mut stream = trpl::stream_from_iter(iter); + + while let Some(value) = stream.next().await { + println!("The value was: {value}"); + } + // ANCHOR_END: stream }); } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-22/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-22/Cargo.lock index 7efd72f633..1a59804c89 100644 --- a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-22/Cargo.lock +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-22/Cargo.lock @@ -4,9 +4,9 @@ version = 3 [[package]] name = "addr2line" -version = "0.21.0" +version = "0.22.0" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "8a30b2e23b9e17a9f90641c7ab1549cd9b44f296d3ccbf309d2863cfe398a0cb" +checksum = "6e4503c46a5c0c7844e948c9a4d6acd9f50cccb4de1c48eb9e291ea17470c678" dependencies = [ "gimli", ] @@ -45,9 +45,9 @@ checksum = "0c4b4d0bd25bd0b74681c0ad21497610ce1b7c91b1022cd21c80c6fbdd9476b0" [[package]] name = "backtrace" -version = "0.3.71" +version = "0.3.73" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "26b05800d2e817c8b3b4b54abd461726265fa9789ae34330622f2db9ee696f9d" +checksum = "5cc23269a4f8976d0a4d2e7109211a419fe30e8d88d677cd60b6bc79c5732e0a" dependencies = [ "addr2line", "cc", @@ -90,9 +90,9 @@ checksum = "428d9aa8fbc0670b7b8d6030a7fadd0f86151cae55e4dbbece15f3780a3dfaf3" [[package]] name = "cc" -version = "1.0.97" +version = "1.0.99" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "099a5357d84c4c61eb35fc8eafa9a79a902c2f76911e5747ced4e032edd8d9b4" +checksum = "96c51067fd44124faa7f870b4b1c969379ad32b2ba805aa959430ceaa384f695" [[package]] name = "cfg-if" @@ -300,9 +300,9 @@ dependencies = [ [[package]] name = "gimli" -version = "0.28.1" +version = "0.29.0" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "4271d37baee1b8c7e4b708028c57d816cf9d2434acb33a549475f78c181f6253" +checksum = "40ecd4077b5ae9fd2e9e169b102c6c330d0605168eb0e8bf79952b256dbefffd" [[package]] name = "hermit-abi" @@ -453,9 +453,9 @@ dependencies = [ [[package]] name = "libc" -version = "0.2.154" +version = "0.2.155" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "ae743338b92ff9146ce83992f766a31066a91a8c84a45e0e9f21e7cf6de6d346" +checksum = "97b3888a4aecf77e811145cadf6eef5901f4782c53886191b2f693f24761847c" [[package]] name = "lock_api" @@ -495,9 +495,9 @@ dependencies = [ [[package]] name = "memchr" -version = "2.7.2" +version = "2.7.4" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "6c8640c5d730cb13ebd907d8d04b52f55ac9a2eec55b440c8892f40d56c76c1d" +checksum = "78ca9ab1a0babb1e7d5695e3530886289c18cf2f87ec19a575a0abdce112e3a3" [[package]] name = "mime" @@ -507,9 +507,9 @@ checksum = "6877bb514081ee2a7ff5ef9de3281f14a4dd4bceac4c09388074a6b5df8a139a" [[package]] name = "miniz_oxide" -version = "0.7.2" +version = "0.7.4" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "9d811f3e15f28568be3407c8e7fdb6514c1cda3cb30683f15b6a1a1dc4ea14a7" +checksum = "b8a240ddb74feaf34a79a7add65a741f3167852fba007066dcac1ca548d89c08" dependencies = [ "adler", ] @@ -543,9 +543,9 @@ dependencies = [ [[package]] name = "object" -version = "0.32.2" +version = "0.36.0" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "a6a622008b6e321afc04970976f62ee297fdbaa6f95318ca343e3eebb9648441" +checksum = "576dfe1fc8f9df304abb159d767a29d0476f7750fbf8aa7ad07816004a207434" dependencies = [ "memchr", ] @@ -704,9 +704,9 @@ checksum = "925383efa346730478fb4838dbe9137d2a47675ad789c546d150a6e1dd4ab31c" [[package]] name = "proc-macro2" -version = "1.0.82" +version = "1.0.85" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "8ad3d49ab951a01fbaafe34f2ec74122942fe18a3f9814c3268f1bb72042131b" +checksum = "22244ce15aa966053a896d1accb3a6e68469b97c7f33f284b99f0d576879fc23" dependencies = [ "unicode-ident", ] @@ -1093,9 +1093,9 @@ checksum = "13c2bddecc57b384dee18652358fb23172facb8a2c51ccc10d74c157bdea3292" [[package]] name = "syn" -version = "2.0.63" +version = "2.0.66" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "bf5be731623ca1a1fb7d8be6f261a3be6d3e2337b8a1f97be944d020c8fcb704" +checksum = "c42f3f41a2de00b01c0aaad383c5a45241efc8b2d1eda5661812fda5f3cdcff5" dependencies = [ "proc-macro2", "quote", @@ -1159,9 +1159,9 @@ checksum = "1f3ccbac311fea05f86f61904b462b55fb3df8837a366dfc601a0161d0532f20" [[package]] name = "tokio" -version = "1.37.0" +version = "1.38.0" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "1adbebffeca75fcfd058afa480fb6c0b81e165a0323f9c9d39c9697e37c46787" +checksum = "ba4f4a02a7a80d6f274636f0aa95c7e383b912d41fe721a31f29e29698585a4a" dependencies = [ "backtrace", "bytes", diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-22/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-22/Cargo.toml index 10702bd9f5..e5c8a84843 100644 --- a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-22/Cargo.toml +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-22/Cargo.toml @@ -4,6 +4,5 @@ version = "0.1.0" edition = "2024" # See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html - [dependencies] trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-22/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-22/src/main.rs index 2dfb52b7d4..80c2d05de1 100644 --- a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-22/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-22/src/main.rs @@ -1,16 +1,18 @@ extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test -use std::{thread, time::Duration}; +// ANCHOR: all +use trpl::StreamExt; fn main() { - trpl::run(async { - // We will call `slow` here later - }); -} + trpl::block_on(async { + let values = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]; + // --snip-- + // ANCHOR_END: all + let iter = values.iter().map(|n| n * 2); + let mut stream = trpl::stream_from_iter(iter); -// ANCHOR: slow -fn slow(name: &str, ms: u64) { - thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(ms)); - println!("'{name}' ran for {ms}ms"); + while let Some(value) = stream.next().await { + println!("The value was: {value}"); + } + }); } -// ANCHOR_END: slow diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-23/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-23/src/main.rs index 391cf39e19..8f7b93ce20 100644 --- a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-23/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-23/src/main.rs @@ -1,35 +1,54 @@ extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test -use std::{thread, time::Duration}; +use std::time::Duration; fn main() { - trpl::run(async { - // ANCHOR: slow-futures - let a = async { - println!("'a' started."); - slow("a", 30); - slow("a", 10); - slow("a", 20); - trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(50)).await; - println!("'a' finished."); + trpl::block_on(async { + let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + + let tx1 = tx.clone(); + let tx1_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx1.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } }; - let b = async { - println!("'b' started."); - slow("b", 75); - slow("b", 10); - slow("b", 15); - slow("b", 350); - trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(50)).await; - println!("'b' finished."); + let rx_fut = async { + while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { + println!("received '{value}'"); + } }; - trpl::race(a, b).await; - // ANCHOR_END: slow-futures - }); -} + // ANCHOR: here + let tx_fut = async move { + // --snip-- + // ANCHOR_END: here + let vals = vec![ + String::from("more"), + String::from("messages"), + String::from("for"), + String::from("you"), + ]; -fn slow(name: &str, ms: u64) { - thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(ms)); - println!("'{name}' ran for {ms}ms"); + for val in vals { + tx.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } + // ANCHOR: here + }; + + let futures: Vec>> = + vec![Box::new(tx1_fut), Box::new(rx_fut), Box::new(tx_fut)]; + + trpl::join_all(futures).await; + // ANCHOR_END: here + }); } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-24/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-24/src/main.rs index 2f8310f612..5cbda0e3fb 100644 --- a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-24/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-24/src/main.rs @@ -1,42 +1,68 @@ extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test -use std::{thread, time::Duration}; +// ANCHOR: here +use std::pin::{Pin, pin}; + +// --snip-- + +// ANCHOR_END: here +use std::time::Duration; fn main() { - trpl::run(async { + trpl::block_on(async { + let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + + let tx1 = tx.clone(); + // ANCHOR: here + let tx1_fut = pin!(async move { + // --snip-- + // ANCHOR_END: here + let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx1.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } + // ANCHOR: here + }); + + // ANCHOR_END: here // ANCHOR: here - let one_ms = Duration::from_millis(1); - - let a = async { - println!("'a' started."); - slow("a", 30); - trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; - slow("a", 10); - trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; - slow("a", 20); - trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; - println!("'a' finished."); - }; - - let b = async { - println!("'b' started."); - slow("b", 75); - trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; - slow("b", 10); - trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; - slow("b", 15); - trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; - slow("b", 350); - trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; - println!("'b' finished."); - }; + let rx_fut = pin!(async { + // --snip-- + // ANCHOR_END: here + while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { + println!("received '{value}'"); + } + // ANCHOR: here + }); + + let tx_fut = pin!(async move { + // --snip-- + // ANCHOR_END: here + let vals = vec![ + String::from("more"), + String::from("messages"), + String::from("for"), + String::from("you"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } + // ANCHOR: here + }); + + let futures: Vec>> = + vec![tx1_fut, rx_fut, tx_fut]; // ANCHOR_END: here - trpl::race(a, b).await; + trpl::join_all(futures).await; }); } - -fn slow(name: &str, ms: u64) { - thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(ms)); - println!("'{name}' ran for {ms}ms"); -} diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-25/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-25/Cargo.lock index 7efd72f633..0c240d2b4e 100644 --- a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-25/Cargo.lock +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-25/Cargo.lock @@ -4,9 +4,9 @@ version = 3 [[package]] name = "addr2line" -version = "0.21.0" +version = "0.22.0" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "8a30b2e23b9e17a9f90641c7ab1549cd9b44f296d3ccbf309d2863cfe398a0cb" +checksum = "6e4503c46a5c0c7844e948c9a4d6acd9f50cccb4de1c48eb9e291ea17470c678" dependencies = [ "gimli", ] @@ -45,9 +45,9 @@ checksum = "0c4b4d0bd25bd0b74681c0ad21497610ce1b7c91b1022cd21c80c6fbdd9476b0" [[package]] name = "backtrace" -version = "0.3.71" +version = "0.3.73" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "26b05800d2e817c8b3b4b54abd461726265fa9789ae34330622f2db9ee696f9d" +checksum = "5cc23269a4f8976d0a4d2e7109211a419fe30e8d88d677cd60b6bc79c5732e0a" dependencies = [ "addr2line", "cc", @@ -90,9 +90,9 @@ checksum = "428d9aa8fbc0670b7b8d6030a7fadd0f86151cae55e4dbbece15f3780a3dfaf3" [[package]] name = "cc" -version = "1.0.97" +version = "1.0.99" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "099a5357d84c4c61eb35fc8eafa9a79a902c2f76911e5747ced4e032edd8d9b4" +checksum = "96c51067fd44124faa7f870b4b1c969379ad32b2ba805aa959430ceaa384f695" [[package]] name = "cfg-if" @@ -300,9 +300,9 @@ dependencies = [ [[package]] name = "gimli" -version = "0.28.1" +version = "0.29.0" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "4271d37baee1b8c7e4b708028c57d816cf9d2434acb33a549475f78c181f6253" +checksum = "40ecd4077b5ae9fd2e9e169b102c6c330d0605168eb0e8bf79952b256dbefffd" [[package]] name = "hermit-abi" @@ -360,9 +360,9 @@ dependencies = [ [[package]] name = "httparse" -version = "1.9.5" +version = "1.9.4" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "7d71d3574edd2771538b901e6549113b4006ece66150fb69c0fb6d9a2adae946" +checksum = "0fcc0b4a115bf80b728eb8ea024ad5bd707b615bfed49e0665b6e0f86fd082d9" [[package]] name = "hyper" @@ -403,9 +403,9 @@ dependencies = [ [[package]] name = "hyper-util" -version = "0.1.9" +version = "0.1.8" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "41296eb09f183ac68eec06e03cdbea2e759633d4067b2f6552fc2e009bcad08b" +checksum = "da62f120a8a37763efb0cf8fdf264b884c7b8b9ac8660b900c8661030c00e6ba" dependencies = [ "bytes", "futures-channel", @@ -416,6 +416,7 @@ dependencies = [ "pin-project-lite", "socket2", "tokio", + "tower", "tower-service", "tracing", ] @@ -432,9 +433,9 @@ dependencies = [ [[package]] name = "ipnet" -version = "2.10.1" +version = "2.10.0" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "ddc24109865250148c2e0f3d25d4f0f479571723792d3802153c60922a4fb708" +checksum = "187674a687eed5fe42285b40c6291f9a01517d415fad1c3cbc6a9f778af7fcd4" [[package]] name = "itoa" @@ -453,9 +454,9 @@ dependencies = [ [[package]] name = "libc" -version = "0.2.154" +version = "0.2.155" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "ae743338b92ff9146ce83992f766a31066a91a8c84a45e0e9f21e7cf6de6d346" +checksum = "97b3888a4aecf77e811145cadf6eef5901f4782c53886191b2f693f24761847c" [[package]] name = "lock_api" @@ -495,9 +496,9 @@ dependencies = [ [[package]] name = "memchr" -version = "2.7.2" +version = "2.7.4" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "6c8640c5d730cb13ebd907d8d04b52f55ac9a2eec55b440c8892f40d56c76c1d" +checksum = "78ca9ab1a0babb1e7d5695e3530886289c18cf2f87ec19a575a0abdce112e3a3" [[package]] name = "mime" @@ -507,9 +508,9 @@ checksum = "6877bb514081ee2a7ff5ef9de3281f14a4dd4bceac4c09388074a6b5df8a139a" [[package]] name = "miniz_oxide" -version = "0.7.2" +version = "0.7.4" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "9d811f3e15f28568be3407c8e7fdb6514c1cda3cb30683f15b6a1a1dc4ea14a7" +checksum = "b8a240ddb74feaf34a79a7add65a741f3167852fba007066dcac1ca548d89c08" dependencies = [ "adler", ] @@ -543,18 +544,18 @@ dependencies = [ [[package]] name = "object" -version = "0.32.2" +version = "0.36.0" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "a6a622008b6e321afc04970976f62ee297fdbaa6f95318ca343e3eebb9648441" +checksum = "576dfe1fc8f9df304abb159d767a29d0476f7750fbf8aa7ad07816004a207434" dependencies = [ "memchr", ] [[package]] name = "once_cell" -version = "1.20.2" +version = "1.19.0" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "1261fe7e33c73b354eab43b1273a57c8f967d0391e80353e51f764ac02cf6775" +checksum = "3fdb12b2476b595f9358c5161aa467c2438859caa136dec86c26fdd2efe17b92" [[package]] name = "parking_lot" @@ -675,6 +676,26 @@ dependencies = [ "siphasher", ] +[[package]] +name = "pin-project" +version = "1.1.5" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "b6bf43b791c5b9e34c3d182969b4abb522f9343702850a2e57f460d00d09b4b3" +dependencies = [ + "pin-project-internal", +] + +[[package]] +name = "pin-project-internal" +version = "1.1.5" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "2f38a4412a78282e09a2cf38d195ea5420d15ba0602cb375210efbc877243965" +dependencies = [ + "proc-macro2", + "quote", + "syn", +] + [[package]] name = "pin-project-lite" version = "0.2.14" @@ -704,9 +725,9 @@ checksum = "925383efa346730478fb4838dbe9137d2a47675ad789c546d150a6e1dd4ab31c" [[package]] name = "proc-macro2" -version = "1.0.82" +version = "1.0.85" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "8ad3d49ab951a01fbaafe34f2ec74122942fe18a3f9814c3268f1bb72042131b" +checksum = "22244ce15aa966053a896d1accb3a6e68469b97c7f33f284b99f0d576879fc23" dependencies = [ "unicode-ident", ] @@ -800,18 +821,18 @@ dependencies = [ [[package]] name = "redox_syscall" -version = "0.5.7" +version = "0.5.4" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "9b6dfecf2c74bce2466cabf93f6664d6998a69eb21e39f4207930065b27b771f" +checksum = "0884ad60e090bf1345b93da0a5de8923c93884cd03f40dfcfddd3b4bee661853" dependencies = [ "bitflags", ] [[package]] name = "reqwest" -version = "0.12.8" +version = "0.12.7" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "f713147fbe92361e52392c73b8c9e48c04c6625bce969ef54dc901e58e042a7b" +checksum = "f8f4955649ef5c38cc7f9e8aa41761d48fb9677197daea9984dc54f56aad5e63" dependencies = [ "base64", "bytes", @@ -878,9 +899,9 @@ checksum = "583034fd73374156e66797ed8e5b0d5690409c9226b22d87cb7f19821c05d152" [[package]] name = "rustls" -version = "0.23.14" +version = "0.23.13" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "415d9944693cb90382053259f89fbb077ea730ad7273047ec63b19bc9b160ba8" +checksum = "f2dabaac7466917e566adb06783a81ca48944c6898a1b08b9374106dd671f4c8" dependencies = [ "once_cell", "ring", @@ -892,18 +913,19 @@ dependencies = [ [[package]] name = "rustls-pemfile" -version = "2.2.0" +version = "2.1.3" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "dce314e5fee3f39953d46bb63bb8a46d40c2f8fb7cc5a3b6cab2bde9721d6e50" +checksum = "196fe16b00e106300d3e45ecfcb764fa292a535d7326a29a5875c579c7417425" dependencies = [ + "base64", "rustls-pki-types", ] [[package]] name = "rustls-pki-types" -version = "1.9.0" +version = "1.8.0" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "0e696e35370c65c9c541198af4543ccd580cf17fc25d8e05c5a242b202488c55" +checksum = "fc0a2ce646f8655401bb81e7927b812614bd5d91dbc968696be50603510fcaf0" [[package]] name = "rustls-webpki" @@ -1093,9 +1115,9 @@ checksum = "13c2bddecc57b384dee18652358fb23172facb8a2c51ccc10d74c157bdea3292" [[package]] name = "syn" -version = "2.0.63" +version = "2.0.66" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "bf5be731623ca1a1fb7d8be6f261a3be6d3e2337b8a1f97be944d020c8fcb704" +checksum = "c42f3f41a2de00b01c0aaad383c5a45241efc8b2d1eda5661812fda5f3cdcff5" dependencies = [ "proc-macro2", "quote", @@ -1159,9 +1181,9 @@ checksum = "1f3ccbac311fea05f86f61904b462b55fb3df8837a366dfc601a0161d0532f20" [[package]] name = "tokio" -version = "1.37.0" +version = "1.38.0" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "1adbebffeca75fcfd058afa480fb6c0b81e165a0323f9c9d39c9697e37c46787" +checksum = "ba4f4a02a7a80d6f274636f0aa95c7e383b912d41fe721a31f29e29698585a4a" dependencies = [ "backtrace", "bytes", @@ -1195,6 +1217,27 @@ dependencies = [ "tokio", ] +[[package]] +name = "tower" +version = "0.4.13" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "b8fa9be0de6cf49e536ce1851f987bd21a43b771b09473c3549a6c853db37c1c" +dependencies = [ + "futures-core", + "futures-util", + "pin-project", + "pin-project-lite", + "tokio", + "tower-layer", + "tower-service", +] + +[[package]] +name = "tower-layer" +version = "0.3.3" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "121c2a6cda46980bb0fcd1647ffaf6cd3fc79a013de288782836f6df9c48780e" + [[package]] name = "tower-service" version = "0.3.3" @@ -1239,9 +1282,9 @@ checksum = "e421abadd41a4225275504ea4d6566923418b7f05506fbc9c0fe86ba7396114b" [[package]] name = "unicode-bidi" -version = "0.3.17" +version = "0.3.15" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "5ab17db44d7388991a428b2ee655ce0c212e862eff1768a455c58f9aad6e7893" +checksum = "08f95100a766bf4f8f28f90d77e0a5461bbdb219042e7679bebe79004fed8d75" [[package]] name = "unicode-ident" diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-25/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-25/Cargo.toml index 10702bd9f5..e5c8a84843 100644 --- a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-25/Cargo.toml +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-25/Cargo.toml @@ -4,6 +4,5 @@ version = "0.1.0" edition = "2024" # See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html - [dependencies] trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-25/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-25/src/main.rs index 40ebb8cb9b..7361215b20 100644 --- a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-25/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-25/src/main.rs @@ -1,40 +1,22 @@ -extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test +extern crate trpl; // for mdbook test +// ANCHOR: all use std::{thread, time::Duration}; fn main() { - trpl::run(async { - // ANCHOR: yields - let a = async { - println!("'a' started."); - slow("a", 30); - trpl::yield_now().await; - slow("a", 10); - trpl::yield_now().await; - slow("a", 20); - trpl::yield_now().await; - println!("'a' finished."); - }; + let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); - let b = async { - println!("'b' started."); - slow("b", 75); - trpl::yield_now().await; - slow("b", 10); - trpl::yield_now().await; - slow("b", 15); - trpl::yield_now().await; - slow("b", 350); - trpl::yield_now().await; - println!("'b' finished."); - }; - // ANCHOR_END: yields - - trpl::race(a, b).await; + thread::spawn(move || { + for i in 1..11 { + tx.send(i).unwrap(); + thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)); + } }); -} -fn slow(name: &str, ms: u64) { - thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(ms)); - println!("'{name}' ran for {ms}ms"); + trpl::block_on(async { + while let Some(message) = rx.recv().await { + println!("{message}"); + } + }); } +// ANCHOR_END: all diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-26/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-26/Cargo.lock deleted file mode 100644 index 00a82573e5..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-26/Cargo.lock +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1591 +0,0 @@ -# This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. -# It is not intended for manual editing. -version = 3 - -[[package]] -name = "addr2line" -version = "0.21.0" -source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "8a30b2e23b9e17a9f90641c7ab1549cd9b44f296d3ccbf309d2863cfe398a0cb" -dependencies = [ - "gimli", -] - -[[package]] -name = "adler" -version = "1.0.2" -source = 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https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html - -[dependencies] -trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-26/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-26/src/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index 31ce58d9e9..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-26/src/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,36 +0,0 @@ -extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test - -use std::time::{Duration, Instant}; - -fn main() { - trpl::run(async { - // ANCHOR: here - let one_ns = Duration::from_nanos(1); - let start = Instant::now(); - async { - for _ in 1..1000 { - trpl::sleep(one_ns).await; - } - } - .await; - let time = Instant::now() - start; - println!( - "'sleep' version finished after {} seconds.", - time.as_secs_f32() - ); - - let start = Instant::now(); - async { - for _ in 1..1000 { - trpl::yield_now().await; - } - } - .await; - let time = Instant::now() - start; - println!( - "'yield' version finished after {} seconds.", - 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trpl::{ReceiverStream, Stream, StreamExt}; - -fn main() { - trpl::run(async { - let mut messages = - pin!(get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200))); - - while let Some(result) = messages.next().await { - match result { - Ok(message) => println!("{message}"), - Err(reason) => eprintln!("Problem: {reason:?}"), - } - } - }) -} -// ANCHOR_END: timeout - -fn get_messages() -> impl Stream { - let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); - - let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; - for message in messages { - tx.send(format!("Message: '{message}'")).unwrap(); - } - - ReceiverStream::new(rx) -} diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-35/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-35/Cargo.lock deleted file mode 100644 index 1a59804c89..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-35/Cargo.lock +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1591 +0,0 @@ -# This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. -# It is not intended for manual editing. -version = 3 - -[[package]] 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and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html -[dependencies] -trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-37/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-37/src/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index b2858db459..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-37/src/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,53 +0,0 @@ -extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test - -use std::{pin::pin, time::Duration}; - -use trpl::{ReceiverStream, Stream, StreamExt}; - -fn main() { - trpl::run(async { - // ANCHOR: main - let messages = get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200)); - let intervals = get_intervals(); - let merged = messages.merge(intervals); - - while let Some(result) = merged.next().await { - // ANCHOR_END: main - match result { - Ok(message) => println!("{message}"), - Err(reason) => eprintln!("Problem: {reason:?}"), - } - } - }) -} - -fn get_messages() -> impl Stream { - let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); - - trpl::spawn_task(async move { - let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; - for (index, message) in messages.into_iter().enumerate() { - let time_to_sleep = if index % 2 == 0 { 100 } else { 300 }; - trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(time_to_sleep)).await; - - tx.send(format!("Message: '{message}'")).unwrap(); - } - }); - - ReceiverStream::new(rx) -} - -fn get_intervals() -> impl Stream { - let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); - - trpl::spawn_task(async move { - let mut count = 0; - loop { - trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)).await; - count += 1; - tx.send(count).unwrap(); - } - }); - - ReceiverStream::new(rx) -} diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-38/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-38/Cargo.lock deleted file mode 100644 index 1a59804c89..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-38/Cargo.lock +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1591 +0,0 @@ -# This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. -# It is not intended 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and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html -[dependencies] -trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-38/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-38/src/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index 9d98a27fd7..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-38/src/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,56 +0,0 @@ -extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test - -use std::{pin::pin, time::Duration}; - -use trpl::{ReceiverStream, Stream, StreamExt}; - -fn main() { - trpl::run(async { - // ANCHOR: main - let messages = get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200)); - let intervals = get_intervals() - .map(|count| format!("Interval: {count}")) - .timeout(Duration::from_secs(10)); - let merged = messages.merge(intervals); - let mut stream = pin!(merged); - - while let Some(result) = stream.next().await { - // ANCHOR_END: main - match result { - Ok(message) => println!("{message}"), - Err(reason) => eprintln!("Problem: {reason:?}"), - } - } - }) -} - -fn get_messages() -> impl Stream { - let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); - - trpl::spawn_task(async move { - let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; - for (index, message) in messages.into_iter().enumerate() { - let time_to_sleep = if index % 2 == 0 { 100 } else { 300 }; - trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(time_to_sleep)).await; - - tx.send(format!("Message: '{message}'")).unwrap(); - } - }); - - ReceiverStream::new(rx) -} - -fn get_intervals() -> impl Stream { - let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); - - trpl::spawn_task(async move { - let mut count = 0; - loop { - trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)).await; - count += 1; - tx.send(count).unwrap(); - } - }); - - ReceiverStream::new(rx) -} diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-39/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-39/Cargo.lock deleted file mode 100644 index 1a59804c89..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-39/Cargo.lock +++ 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trpl::{ReceiverStream, Stream, StreamExt}; - -fn main() { - trpl::run(async { - let messages = get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200)); - let intervals = get_intervals() - .map(|count| format!("Interval #{count}")) - .throttle(Duration::from_millis(500)) - .timeout(Duration::from_secs(10)); - let merged = messages.merge(intervals).take(20); - let mut stream = pin!(merged); - - while let Some(result) = stream.next().await { - match result { - Ok(item) => println!("{item}"), - Err(reason) => eprintln!("Problem: {reason:?}"), - } - } - }); -} - -// ANCHOR: errors -fn get_messages() -> impl Stream { - let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); - - trpl::spawn_task(async move { - let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; - - for (index, message) in messages.into_iter().enumerate() { - let time_to_sleep = if index % 2 == 0 { 100 } else { 300 }; - trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(time_to_sleep)).await; - - if let Err(send_error) = tx.send(format!("Message: 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and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html -[dependencies] -trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-41/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-41/src/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index f1f3d4b0c0..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-41/src/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,67 +0,0 @@ -extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test - -use std::{pin::pin, thread, time::Duration}; - -use trpl::{ReceiverStream, Stream, StreamExt}; - -fn main() { - trpl::run(async { - let messages = get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200)); - let intervals = get_intervals() - .map(|count| format!("Interval #{count}")) - .throttle(Duration::from_millis(500)) - .timeout(Duration::from_secs(10)); - let merged = messages.merge(intervals).take(20); - let mut stream = pin!(merged); - - while let Some(result) = stream.next().await { - match result { - Ok(item) => println!("{item}"), - Err(reason) => eprintln!("Problem: {reason:?}"), - } - } - }); -} - -fn get_messages() -> impl Stream { - let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); - - trpl::spawn_task(async move { - let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; - - for (index, message) in messages.into_iter().enumerate() { - let time_to_sleep = if index % 2 == 0 { 100 } else { 300 }; - trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(time_to_sleep)).await; - - if let Err(send_error) = tx.send(format!("Message: '{message}'")) { - eprintln!("Cannot send message '{message}': {send_error}"); - break; - } - } - }); - - ReceiverStream::new(rx) -} - -// ANCHOR: threads -fn get_intervals() -> impl Stream { - let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); - - // This is *not* `trpl::spawn` but `std::thread::spawn`! - thread::spawn(move || { - let mut count = 0; - loop { - // Likewise, this is *not* `trpl::sleep` but `std::thread::sleep`! - thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)); - count += 1; - - if let Err(send_error) = tx.send(count) { - 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b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-42/src/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index 1a508bf582..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-42/src/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,22 +0,0 @@ -extern crate trpl; // for mdbook test - -// ANCHOR: all -use std::{thread, time::Duration}; - -fn main() { - let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); - - thread::spawn(move || { - for i in 1..11 { - tx.send(i).unwrap(); - thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)); - } - }); - - trpl::run(async { - while let Some(message) = rx.recv().await { - println!("{message}"); - } - }); -} -// ANCHOR_END: all diff --git a/nostarch/appendix.md b/nostarch/appendix.md index 53b7739821..1dee77cf62 100644 --- a/nostarch/appendix.md +++ b/nostarch/appendix.md @@ -184,7 +184,7 @@ Table B-1: Operators |`-`|`- expr`|Arithmetic negation|`Neg`| |`-`|`expr - expr`|Arithmetic subtraction|`Sub`| |`-=`|`var -= expr`|Arithmetic subtraction and assignment|`SubAssign`| -|`->`|`fn(...) -> type`, \|...\| -> type|Function and closure return type|| +|`->`|`fn(...) -> type`, \|…\| -> type|Function and closure return type|| |`.`|`expr.ident`|Field access|| |`.`|`expr.ident(expr, ...)`|Method call|| |`.`|`expr.0`, `expr.1`, and so on|Tuple indexing|| @@ -240,7 +240,7 @@ Table B-2: Stand-alone Syntax |`br"..."`, `br#"..."#`, `br##"..."##`, and so on|Raw byte string literal; combination of raw and byte string literal| |`'...'`|Character literal| |`b'...'`|ASCII byte literal| -|\|...\| expr|Closure| +|\|…\| expr|Closure| |`!`|Always-empty bottom type for diverging functions| |`_`|“Ignored” pattern binding; also used to make integer literals readable| diff --git a/nostarch/chapter00.md b/nostarch/chapter00.md index 1e80ef0dcc..5be07f2473 100644 --- a/nostarch/chapter00.md +++ b/nostarch/chapter00.md @@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ directory, so all fixes need to be made in `/src/`. # Introduction > Note: This edition of the book is the same as The Rust Programming -> Language at *https://nostarch.com/rust-programming-language-2nd-edition* available in print and ebook format from No Starch +> Language at *https://nostarch.com/rust-programming-language-3rd-edition* available in print and ebook format from No Starch > Press at *https://nostarch.com/*. Welcome to *The Rust Programming Language*, an introductory book about Rust. @@ -29,11 +29,11 @@ the most important groups. Rust is proving to be a productive tool for collaborating among large teams of developers with varying levels of systems programming knowledge. Low-level code -is prone to various subtle bugs, which in most other languages can be caught -only through extensive testing and careful code review by experienced +is prone to various subtle bugs, which in most other languages can only be +caught through extensive testing and careful code review by experienced developers. In Rust, the compiler plays a gatekeeper role by refusing to compile code with these elusive bugs, including concurrency bugs. By working -alongside the compiler, the team can spend their time focusing on the program’s +alongside the compiler, the team can spend its time focusing on the program’s logic rather than chasing down bugs. Rust also brings contemporary developer tools to the systems programming world: @@ -41,9 +41,9 @@ Rust also brings contemporary developer tools to the systems programming world: * Cargo, the included dependency manager and build tool, makes adding, compiling, and managing dependencies painless and consistent across the Rust ecosystem. -* The Rustfmt formatting tool ensures a consistent coding style across +* The `rustfmt` formatting tool ensures a consistent coding style across developers. -* The rust-analyzer powers Integrated Development Environment (IDE) +* The Rust Language Server powers integrated development environment (IDE) integration for code completion and inline error messages. By using these and other tools in the Rust ecosystem, developers can be @@ -54,7 +54,7 @@ productive while writing systems-level code. Rust is for students and those who are interested in learning about systems concepts. Using Rust, many people have learned about topics like operating systems development. The community is very welcoming and happy to answer -student questions. Through efforts such as this book, the Rust teams want to +students’ questions. Through efforts such as this book, the Rust teams want to make systems concepts more accessible to more people, especially those new to programming. @@ -87,16 +87,17 @@ The Rust language hopes to support many other users as well; those mentioned here are merely some of the biggest stakeholders. Overall, Rust’s greatest ambition is to eliminate the trade-offs that programmers have accepted for decades by providing safety *and* productivity, speed *and* ergonomics. Give -Rust a try and see if its choices work for you. +Rust a try, and see if its choices work for you. ## Who This Book Is For -This book assumes that you’ve written code in another programming language but -doesn’t make any assumptions about which one. We’ve tried to make the material -broadly accessible to those from a wide variety of programming backgrounds. We -don’t spend a lot of time talking about what programming *is* or how to think -about it. If you’re entirely new to programming, you would be better served by -reading a book that specifically provides an introduction to programming. +This book assumes that you’ve written code in another programming language, but +it doesn’t make any assumptions about which one. We’ve tried to make the +material broadly accessible to those from a wide variety of programming +backgrounds. We don’t spend a lot of time talking about what programming *is* +or how to think about it. If you’re entirely new to programming, you would be +better served by reading a book that specifically provides an introduction to +programming. ## How to Use This Book @@ -108,81 +109,85 @@ the topic in a later chapter. You’ll find two kinds of chapters in this book: concept chapters and project chapters. In concept chapters, you’ll learn about an aspect of Rust. In project chapters, we’ll build small programs together, applying what you’ve learned so -far. Chapters 2, 12, and 21 are project chapters; the rest are concept chapters. +far. Chapter 2, Chapter 12, and Chapter 21 are project chapters; the rest are +concept chapters. -Chapter 1 explains how to install Rust, how to write a “Hello, world!” program, -and how to use Cargo, Rust’s package manager and build tool. Chapter 2 is a -hands-on introduction to writing a program in Rust, having you build up a -number guessing game. Here we cover concepts at a high level, and later +**Chapter 1** explains how to install Rust, how to write a “Hello, world!” +program, and how to use Cargo, Rust’s package manager and build tool. **Chapter +2** is a hands-on introduction to writing a program in Rust, having you build +up a number-guessing game. Here, we cover concepts at a high level, and later chapters will provide additional detail. If you want to get your hands dirty -right away, Chapter 2 is the place for that. Chapter 3 covers Rust features -that are similar to those of other programming languages, and in Chapter 4 -you’ll learn about Rust’s ownership system. If you’re a particularly meticulous -learner who prefers to learn every detail before moving on to the next, you -might want to skip Chapter 2 and go straight to Chapter 3, returning to Chapter -2 when you’d like to work on a project applying the details you’ve learned. - -Chapter 5 discusses structs and methods, and Chapter 6 covers enums, `match` -expressions, and the `if let` control flow construct. You’ll use structs and -enums to make custom types in Rust. - -In Chapter 7, you’ll learn about Rust’s module system and about privacy rules -for organizing your code and its public Application Programming Interface -(API). Chapter 8 discusses some common collection data structures that the -standard library provides, such as vectors, strings, and hash maps. Chapter 9 +right away, Chapter 2 is the place for that. If you’re a particularly +meticulous learner who prefers to learn every detail before moving on to the +next, you might want to skip Chapter 2 and go straight to **Chapter 3**, which +covers Rust features that are similar to those of other programming languages; +then, you can return to Chapter 2 when you’d like to work on a project applying +the details you’ve learned. + +In **Chapter 4**, you’ll learn about Rust’s ownership system. **Chapter 5** +discusses structs and methods. **Chapter 6** covers enums, `match` expressions, +and the `if let` and `let...else` control flow constructs. You’ll use structs +and enums to make custom types. + +In **Chapter 7**, you’ll learn about Rust’s module system and about privacy +rules for organizing your code and its public application programming interface +(API). **Chapter 8** discusses some common collection data structures that the +standard library provides: vectors, strings, and hash maps. **Chapter 9** explores Rust’s error-handling philosophy and techniques. -Chapter 10 digs into generics, traits, and lifetimes, which give you the power -to define code that applies to multiple types. Chapter 11 is all about testing, -which even with Rust’s safety guarantees is necessary to ensure your program’s -logic is correct. In Chapter 12, we’ll build our own implementation of a subset -of functionality from the `grep` command line tool that searches for text -within files. For this, we’ll use many of the concepts we discussed in the -previous chapters. - -Chapter 13 explores closures and iterators: features of Rust that come from -functional programming languages. In Chapter 14, we’ll examine Cargo in more -depth and talk about best practices for sharing your libraries with others. -Chapter 15 discusses smart pointers that the standard library provides and the -traits that enable their functionality. - -In Chapter 16, we’ll walk through different models of concurrent programming and -talk about how Rust helps you to program in multiple threads fearlessly. In -Chapter 17, we will build on that by exploring Rust’s async and await syntax and -the lightweight concurrency model they support. - -Chapter 18 looks at how Rust idioms compare to object-oriented programming -principles you might be familiar with. - -Chapter 19 is a reference on patterns and pattern matching, which are powerful -ways of expressing ideas throughout Rust programs. Chapter 20 contains a -smorgasbord of advanced topics of interest, including unsafe Rust, macros, and -more about lifetimes, traits, types, functions, and closures. - -In Chapter 21, we’ll complete a project in which we’ll implement a low-level -multithreaded web server! - -Finally, some appendixes contain useful information about the language in a more -reference-like format. **Appendix A** covers Rust’s keywords, **Appendix B** -covers Rust’s operators and symbols, **Appendix C** covers derivable traits +**Chapter 10** digs into generics, traits, and lifetimes, which give you the +power to define code that applies to multiple types. **Chapter 11** is all +about testing, which even with Rust’s safety guarantees is necessary to ensure +that your program’s logic is correct. In **Chapter 12**, we’ll build our own +implementation of a subset of functionality from the `grep` command line tool +that searches for text within files. For this, we’ll use many of the concepts +we discussed in the previous chapters. + +**Chapter 13** explores closures and iterators: features of Rust that come from +functional programming languages. In **Chapter 14**, we’ll examine Cargo in +more depth and talk about best practices for sharing your libraries with +others. **Chapter 15** discusses smart pointers that the standard library +provides and the traits that enable their functionality. + +In **Chapter 16**, we’ll walk through different models of concurrent +programming and talk about how Rust helps you program in multiple threads +fearlessly. In **Chapter 17**, we build on that by exploring Rust’s async and +await syntax, along with tasks, futures, and streams, and the lightweight +concurrency model they enable. + +**Chapter 18** looks at how Rust idioms compare to object-oriented programming +principles you might be familiar with. **Chapter 19** is a reference on +patterns and pattern matching, which are powerful ways of expressing ideas +throughout Rust programs. **Chapter 20** contains a smorgasbord of advanced +topics of interest, including unsafe Rust, macros, and more about lifetimes, +traits, types, functions, and closures. + +In **Chapter 21**, we’ll complete a project in which we’ll implement a +low-level multithreaded web server! + +Finally, some appendixes contain useful information about the language in a +more reference-like format. **Appendix A** covers Rust’s keywords, **Appendix +B** covers Rust’s operators and symbols, **Appendix C** covers derivable traits provided by the standard library, **Appendix D** covers some useful development tools, and **Appendix E** explains Rust editions. In **Appendix F**, you can find translations of the book, and in **Appendix G** we’ll cover how Rust is made and what nightly Rust is. -There is no wrong way to read this book: if you want to skip ahead, go for it! +There is no wrong way to read this book: If you want to skip ahead, go for it! You might have to jump back to earlier chapters if you experience any confusion. But do whatever works for you. An important part of the process of learning Rust is learning how to read the -error messages the compiler displays: these will guide you toward working code. +error messages the compiler displays: These will guide you toward working code. As such, we’ll provide many examples that don’t compile along with the error message the compiler will show you in each situation. Know that if you enter and run a random example, it may not compile! Make sure you read the surrounding text to see whether the example you’re trying to run is meant to -error. Ferris will also help you distinguish code that isn’t meant to work: +error. In most situations, we’ll lead you to the correct version of any code +that doesn’t compile. Ferris will also help you distinguish code that isn’t +meant to work: |Ferris|Meaning| |------|-------| diff --git a/nostarch/chapter01.md b/nostarch/chapter01.md index db0ab7420b..df138f6202 100644 --- a/nostarch/chapter01.md +++ b/nostarch/chapter01.md @@ -167,6 +167,26 @@ integrated development environments (IDEs) have built-in support for Rust. You can always find a fairly current list of many editors and IDEs on the tools page at *https://www.rust-lang.org/tools* on the Rust website. +### Working Offline with This Book + +In several examples, we will use Rust packages beyond the standard library. To +work through those examples, you will either need to have an internet connection +or to have downloaded those dependencies ahead of time. To download the +dependencies ahead of time, you can run the following commands. (We’ll explain +what `cargo` is and what each of these commands does in detail later.) + +``` +$ cargo new get-dependencies +$ cd get-dependencies +$ cargo add rand@0.8.5 trpl@0.2.0 +``` + +This will cache the downloads for these packages so you will not need to +download them later. Once you have run this command, you do not need to keep the +`get-dependencies` folder. If you have run this command, you can use the +`--offline` flag with all `cargo` commands in the rest of the book to use these +cached versions instead of attempting to use the network. + ## Hello, World! Now that you’ve installed Rust, it’s time to write your first Rust program. @@ -262,7 +282,11 @@ section for ways to get help. If `Hello, world!` did print, congratulations! You’ve officially written a Rust program. That makes you a Rust programmer—welcome! -### Anatomy of a Rust Program + + + + +### The Anatomy of a Rust Program Let’s review this “Hello, world!” program in detail. Here’s the first piece of the puzzle: diff --git a/nostarch/chapter05.md b/nostarch/chapter05.md index e63ba23129..db516ed005 100644 --- a/nostarch/chapter05.md +++ b/nostarch/chapter05.md @@ -306,23 +306,23 @@ implement that behavior! You’ll see in Chapter 10 how to define traits and implement them on any type, including unit-like structs. > ### Ownership of Struct Data -> +> > In the `User` struct definition in Listing 5-1, we used the owned `String` > type rather than the `&str` string slice type. This is a deliberate choice > because we want each instance of this struct to own all of its data and for > that data to be valid for as long as the entire struct is valid. -> +> > It’s also possible for structs to store references to data owned by something > else, but to do so requires the use of *lifetimes*, a Rust feature that we’ll > discuss in Chapter 10. Lifetimes ensure that the data referenced by a struct > is valid for as long as the struct is. Let’s say you try to store a reference > in a struct without specifying lifetimes, like the following in > *src/main.rs*; this won’t work: -> +> > -> +> > -> +> > ````rust,ignore,does_not_compile > struct User { > active: bool, @@ -330,7 +330,7 @@ implement them on any type, including unit-like structs. > email: &str, > sign_in_count: u64, > } -> +> > fn main() { > let user1 = User { > active: true, @@ -340,11 +340,11 @@ implement them on any type, including unit-like structs. > }; > } > ```` -> +> > -> +> > The compiler will complain that it needs lifetime specifiers: -> +> > ````console > $ cargo run > Compiling structs v0.1.0 (file:///projects/structs) @@ -360,7 +360,7 @@ implement them on any type, including unit-like structs. > 2 | active: bool, > 3 ~ username: &'a str, > | -> +> > error[E0106]: missing lifetime specifier > --> src/main.rs:4:12 > | @@ -374,11 +374,11 @@ implement them on any type, including unit-like structs. > 3 | username: &str, > 4 ~ email: &'a str, > | -> +> > For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0106`. > error: could not compile `structs` (bin "structs") due to 2 previous errors > ```` -> +> > In Chapter 10, we’ll discuss how to fix these errors so that you can store > references in structs, but for now, we’ll fix errors like these using owned > types like `String` instead of references like `&str`. @@ -872,23 +872,23 @@ are and how to designate a field or method as public or private in Chapter 7. > ### Where’s the -> Operator? -> +> > In C and C++, two different operators are used for calling methods: You use > `.` if you’re calling a method on the object directly and `->` if you’re > calling the method on a pointer to the object and need to dereference the > pointer first. In other words, if `object` is a pointer, > `object->something()` is similar to `(*object).something()`. -> +> > Rust doesn’t have an equivalent to the `->` operator; instead, Rust has a > feature called *automatic referencing and dereferencing*. Calling methods is > one of the few places in Rust with this behavior. -> +> > Here’s how it works: When you call a method with `object.something()`, Rust > automatically adds in `&`, `&mut`, or `*` so that `object` matches the > signature of the method. In other words, the following are the same: -> +> > -> +> > ````rust > # #[derive(Debug,Copy,Clone)] > # struct Point { @@ -909,7 +909,7 @@ are and how to designate a field or method as public or private in Chapter > p1.distance(&p2); > (&p1).distance(&p2); > ```` -> +> > The first one looks much cleaner. This automatic referencing behavior works > because methods have a clear receiver—the type of `self`. Given the receiver > and name of a method, Rust can figure out definitively whether the method is diff --git a/nostarch/chapter07.md b/nostarch/chapter07.md index 205b640762..f5ee14212b 100644 --- a/nostarch/chapter07.md +++ b/nostarch/chapter07.md @@ -50,7 +50,7 @@ collectively referred to as the *module system*, include: * **Packages**: A Cargo feature that lets you build, test, and share crates * **Crates**: A tree of modules that produces a library or executable * **Modules and use**: Let you control the organization, scope, and privacy of -paths + paths * **Paths**: A way of naming an item, such as a struct, function, or module In this chapter, we’ll cover all these features, discuss how they interact, and @@ -63,10 +63,9 @@ The first parts of the module system we’ll cover are packages and crates. A *crate* is the smallest amount of code that the Rust compiler considers at a time. Even if you run `rustc` rather than `cargo` and pass a single source code -file (as we did all the way back in “Rust Program Basics” in -Chapter 1), the compiler considers that file to be a crate. Crates can contain -modules, and the modules may be defined in other files that get compiled with -the crate, as we’ll see in the coming sections. +file (as we did all the way back in “Rust Program Basics” in Chapter 1), the compiler considers that file to be a crate. Crates can +contain modules, and the modules may be defined in other files that get +compiled with the crate, as we’ll see in the coming sections. A crate can come in one of two forms: a binary crate or a library crate. *Binary crates* are programs you can compile to an executable that you can run, @@ -76,10 +75,10 @@ created so far have been binary crates. *Library crates* don’t have a `main` function, and they don’t compile to an executable. Instead, they define functionality intended to be shared with -multiple projects. For example, the `rand` crate we used in Chapter 2 provides -functionality that generates random numbers. Most of the time when Rustaceans -say “crate,” they mean library crate, and they use “crate” interchangeably with -the general programming concept of a “library.” +multiple projects. For example, the `rand` crate we used in Chapter +2 provides functionality that generates random numbers. +Most of the time when Rustaceans say “crate,” they mean library crate, and they +use “crate” interchangeably with the general programming concept of a “library.” The *crate root* is a source file that the Rust compiler starts from and makes up the root module of your crate (we’ll explain modules in depth in “Control @@ -126,6 +125,17 @@ and *src/lib.rs*, it has two crates: a binary and a library, both with the same name as the package. A package can have multiple binary crates by placing files in the *src/bin* directory: Each file will be a separate binary crate. + + + + +## Control Scope and Privacy with Modules + +In this section, we’ll talk about modules and other parts of the module system, +namely *paths*, which allow you to name items; the `use` keyword that brings a +path into scope; and the `pub` keyword to make items public. We’ll also discuss +the `as` keyword, external packages, and the glob operator. + ### Modules Cheat Sheet Before we get to the details of modules and paths, here we provide a quick @@ -140,8 +150,7 @@ great place to refer to as a reminder of how modules work. * **Declaring modules**: In the crate root file, you can declare new modules; say you declare a “garden” module with `mod garden;`. The compiler will look for the module’s code in these places: - * Inline, within curly brackets that replace the semicolon following `mod - garden` + * Inline, within curly brackets that replace the semicolon following `mod garden` * In the file *src/garden.rs* * In the file *src/garden/mod.rs* * **Declaring submodules**: In any file other than the crate root, you can @@ -163,9 +172,8 @@ great place to refer to as a reminder of how modules work. `pub` before their declarations. * **The `use` keyword**: Within a scope, the `use` keyword creates shortcuts to items to reduce repetition of long paths. In any scope that can refer to - `crate::garden::vegetables::Asparagus`, you can create a shortcut with `use - crate::garden::vegetables::Asparagus;`, and from then on you only need to write - `Asparagus` to make use of that type in the scope. + `crate::garden::vegetables::Asparagus`, you can create a shortcut with `use crate::garden::vegetables::Asparagus;`, and from then on you only need to + write `Asparagus` to make use of that type in the scope. Here, we create a binary crate named `backyard` that illustrates these rules. The crate’s directory, also named *backyard*, contains these files and @@ -177,13 +185,15 @@ backyard ├── Cargo.toml └── src ├── garden - │ └── vegetables.rs + │   └── vegetables.rs ├── garden.rs └── main.rs ``` The crate root file in this case is *src/main.rs*, and it contains: +src/main.rs + ``` use crate::garden::vegetables::Asparagus; @@ -218,16 +228,7 @@ pub struct Asparagus {} Now let’s get into the details of these rules and demonstrate them in action! - - - - -## Control Scope and Privacy with Modules - -In this section, we’ll talk about modules and other parts of the module system, -namely *paths*, which allow you to name items; the `use` keyword that brings a -path into scope; and the `pub` keyword to make items public. We’ll also discuss -the `as` keyword, external packages, and the glob operator. +### Grouping Related Code in Modules *Modules* let us organize code within a crate for readability and easy reuse. Modules also allow us to control the *privacy* of items because code within a @@ -249,8 +250,7 @@ cooks work in the kitchen, dishwashers clean up, and managers do administrative work. To structure our crate in this way, we can organize its functions into nested -modules. Create a new library named `restaurant` by running `cargo new -restaurant --lib`. Then, enter the code in Listing 7-1 into *src/lib.rs* to +modules. Create a new library named `restaurant` by running `cargo new restaurant --lib`. Then, enter the code in Listing 7-1 into *src/lib.rs* to define some modules and function signatures; this code is the front of house section. @@ -290,7 +290,7 @@ to find the definitions relevant to them. Programmers adding new functionality to this code would know where to place the code to keep the program organized. Earlier, we mentioned that *src/main.rs* and *src/lib.rs* are called *crate -roots*. The reason for their name is that the contents of either of these two +roots*\_. The reason for their name is that the contents of either of these two files form a module named `crate` at the root of the crate’s module structure, known as the *module tree*. @@ -494,21 +494,21 @@ shown in Listing 7-6. $ cargo build Compiling restaurant v0.1.0 (file:///projects/restaurant) error[E0603]: function `add_to_waitlist` is private - --> src/lib.rs:9:37 - | -9 | crate::front_of_house::hosting::add_to_waitlist(); - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ private function - | + --> src/lib.rs:10:37 + | +10 | crate::front_of_house::hosting::add_to_waitlist(); + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ private function + | note: the function `add_to_waitlist` is defined here - --> src/lib.rs:3:9 - | -3 | fn add_to_waitlist() {} - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + --> src/lib.rs:3:9 + | +3 | fn add_to_waitlist() {} + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ error[E0603]: function `add_to_waitlist` is private - --> src/lib.rs:12:30 + --> src/lib.rs:13:30 | -12 | front_of_house::hosting::add_to_waitlist(); +13 | front_of_house::hosting::add_to_waitlist(); | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ private function | note: the function `add_to_waitlist` is defined here @@ -575,15 +575,15 @@ as `eat_at_restaurant`, so the relative path starting from the module in which `add_to_waitlist` are marked with `pub`, the rest of the path works, and this function call is valid! -If you plan to share your library crate so that other projects can use your code, -your public API is your contract with users of your crate that determines how -they can interact with your code. There are many considerations around managing -changes to your public API to make it easier for people to depend on your -crate. These considerations are beyond the scope of this book; if you’re -interested in this topic, see the Rust API Guidelines at *https://rust-lang.github.io/api-guidelines*. +If you plan to share your library crate so that other projects can use your +code, your public API is your contract with users of your crate that determines +how they can interact with your code. There are many considerations around +managing changes to your public API to make it easier for people to depend on +your crate. These considerations are beyond the scope of this book; if you’re +interested in this topic, see the Rust API Guidelines at *https://rust-lang.github.io/api-guidelines/*. > #### Best Practices for Packages with a Binary and a Library -> +> > We mentioned that a package can contain both a *src/main.rs* binary crate > root as well as a *src/lib.rs* library crate root, and both crates will have > the package name by default. Typically, packages with this pattern of @@ -591,16 +591,17 @@ interested in this topic, see the Rust API Guidelines at *https://rust-lang.gith > binary crate to start an executable that calls code defined in the library > crate. This lets other projects benefit from the most functionality that the > package provides because the library crate’s code can be shared. -> +> > The module tree should be defined in *src/lib.rs*. Then, any public items can > be used in the binary crate by starting paths with the name of the package. > The binary crate becomes a user of the library crate just like a completely > external crate would use the library crate: It can only use the public API. > This helps you design a good API; not only are you the author, but you’re > also a client! -> -> In Chapter 12, we’ll demonstrate this organizational practice with a command -> line program that will contain both a binary crate and a library crate. +> +> In Chapter 12, we’ll demonstrate this organizational +> practice with a command line program that will contain both a binary crate +> and a library crate. ### Starting Relative Paths with super @@ -985,12 +986,11 @@ Re-exporting is useful when the internal structure of your code is different from how programmers calling your code would think about the domain. For example, in this restaurant metaphor, the people running the restaurant think about “front of house” and “back of house.” But customers visiting a restaurant -probably won’t think about the parts of the restaurant in those terms. With -`pub use`, we can write our code with one structure but expose a different -structure. Doing so makes our library well organized for programmers working on -the library and programmers calling the library. We’ll look at another example -of `pub use` and how it affects your crate’s documentation in “Exporting a -Convenient Public API” in Chapter 14. +probably won’t think about the parts of the restaurant in those terms. With `pub use`, we can write our code with one structure but expose a different structure. +Doing so makes our library well organized for programmers working on the library +and programmers calling the library. We’ll look at another example of `pub use` +and how it affects your crate’s documentation in “Exporting a Convenient Public +API” in Chapter 14. ### Using External Packages @@ -1235,25 +1235,25 @@ compiler’s rules for which files to check for which modules’ code mean the directories and files more closely match the module tree. > ### Alternate File Paths -> +> > So far we’ve covered the most idiomatic file paths the Rust compiler uses, > but Rust also supports an older style of file path. For a module named > `front_of_house` declared in the crate root, the compiler will look for the > module’s code in: -> +> > * *src/front_of_house.rs* (what we covered) > * *src/front_of_house/mod.rs* (older style, still supported path) -> +> > For a module named `hosting` that is a submodule of `front_of_house`, the > compiler will look for the module’s code in: -> +> > * *src/front_of_house/hosting.rs* (what we covered) > * *src/front_of_house/hosting/mod.rs* (older style, still supported path) -> +> > If you use both styles for the same module, you’ll get a compiler error. > Using a mix of both styles for different modules in the same project is > allowed but might be confusing for people navigating your project. -> +> > The main downside to the style that uses files named *mod.rs* is that your > project can end up with many files named *mod.rs*, which can get confusing > when you have them open in your editor at the same time. diff --git a/nostarch/chapter09.md b/nostarch/chapter09.md index 81800f60e7..2356f063a7 100644 --- a/nostarch/chapter09.md +++ b/nostarch/chapter09.md @@ -98,7 +98,7 @@ be in code that our code calls, and the filename and line number reported by the error message will be someone else’s code where the `panic!` macro is called, not the line of our code that eventually led to the `panic!` call. - + diff --git a/nostarch/chapter13.md b/nostarch/chapter13.md index e22c6baa14..ca9ddf1c1a 100644 --- a/nostarch/chapter13.md +++ b/nostarch/chapter13.md @@ -747,7 +747,7 @@ pub trait Iterator { ``` Notice that this definition uses some new syntax: `type Item` and `Self::Item`, -which are defining an *associated type* with this trait. We’ll talk about +which are defining an associated type with this trait. We’ll talk about associated types in depth in Chapter 20. For now, all you need to know is that this code says implementing the `Iterator` trait requires that you also define an `Item` type, and this `Item` type is used in the return type of the `next` diff --git a/nostarch/chapter17.md b/nostarch/chapter17.md index 488036ac76..efab2a38e8 100644 --- a/nostarch/chapter17.md +++ b/nostarch/chapter17.md @@ -9,48 +9,54 @@ directory, so all fixes need to be made in `/src/`. # Fundamentals of Asynchronous Programming: Async, Await, Futures, and Streams Many operations we ask the computer to do can take a while to finish. It would -be nice if we could do something else while we are waiting for those +be nice if we could do something else while we’re waiting for those long-running processes to complete. Modern computers offer two techniques for -working on more than one operation at a time: parallelism and concurrency. Once -we start writing programs that involve parallel or concurrent operations, -though, we quickly encounter new challenges inherent to *asynchronous -programming*, where operations may not finish sequentially in the order they -were started. This chapter builds on Chapter 16’s use of threads for parallelism -and concurrency by introducing an alternative approach to asynchronous -programming: Rust’s Futures, Streams, the `async` and `await` syntax that -supports them, and the tools for managing and coordinating between asynchronous -operations. +working on more than one operation at a time: parallelism and concurrency. Our +programs’ logic, however, is written in a mostly linear fashion. We’d like to +be able to specify the operations a program should perform and points at which +a function could pause and some other part of the program could run instead, +without needing to specify up front exactly the order and manner in which each +bit of code should run. *Asynchronous programming* is an abstraction that lets +us express our code in terms of potential pausing points and eventual results +that takes care of the details of coordination for us. + +This chapter builds on Chapter 16’s use of threads for parallelism and +concurrency by introducing an alternative approach to writing code: Rust’s +futures, streams, and the `async` and `await` syntax that let us express how +operations could be asynchronous, and the third-party crates that implement +asynchronous runtimes: code that manages and coordinates the execution of +asynchronous operations. Let’s consider an example. Say you’re exporting a video you’ve created of a -family celebration, an operation that could take anywhere from minutes to hours. -The video export will use as much CPU and GPU power as it can. If you had only -one CPU core and your operating system didn’t pause that export until it -completed—that is, if it executed the export *synchronously*—you couldn’t do +family celebration, an operation that could take anywhere from minutes to +hours. The video export will use as much CPU and GPU power as it can. If you +had only one CPU core and your operating system didn’t pause that export until +it completed—that is, if it executed the export *synchronously*—you couldn’t do anything else on your computer while that task was running. That would be a pretty frustrating experience. Fortunately, your computer’s operating system can, and does, invisibly interrupt the export often enough to let you get other work done simultaneously. -Now say you’re downloading a video shared by someone else, which can also take a -while but does not take up as much CPU time. In this case, the CPU has to wait -for data to arrive from the network. While you can start reading the data once -it starts to arrive, it might take some time for all of it to show up. Even once -the data is all present, if the video is quite large, it could take at least a -second or two to load it all. That might not sound like much, but it’s a very -long time for a modern processor, which can perform billions of operations every -second. Again, your operating system will invisibly interrupt your program to -allow the CPU to perform other work while waiting for the network call to -finish. +Now say you’re downloading a video shared by someone else, which can also take +a while but does not take up as much CPU time. In this case, the CPU has to +wait for data to arrive from the network. While you can start reading the data +once it starts to arrive, it might take some time for all of it to show up. +Even once the data is all present, if the video is quite large, it could take +at least a second or two to load it all. That might not sound like much, but +it’s a very long time for a modern processor, which can perform billions of +operations every second. Again, your operating system will invisibly interrupt +your program to allow the CPU to perform other work while waiting for the +network call to finish. The video export is an example of a *CPU-bound* or *compute-bound* operation. -It’s limited by the computer’s potential data processing speed within the CPU or -GPU, and how much of that speed it can dedicate to the operation. The video -download is an example of an *IO-bound* operation, because it’s limited by the +It’s limited by the computer’s potential data processing speed within the CPU +or GPU, and how much of that speed it can dedicate to the operation. The video +download is an example of an *I/O-bound* operation, because it’s limited by the speed of the computer’s *input and output*; it can only go as fast as the data can be sent across the network. -In both of these examples, the operating system’s invisible interrupts provide a -form of concurrency. That concurrency happens only at the level of the entire +In both of these examples, the operating system’s invisible interrupts provide +a form of concurrency. That concurrency happens only at the level of the entire program, though: the operating system interrupts one program to let other programs get work done. In many cases, because we understand our programs at a much more granular level than the operating system does, we can spot @@ -70,66 +76,64 @@ completely ready. > *non*-blocking. We could avoid blocking our main thread by spawning a dedicated thread to -download each file. However, the overhead of those threads would eventually -become a problem. It would be preferable if the call didn’t block in the first -place. It would also be better if we could write in the same direct style we use -in blocking code, similar to this: - -``` -let data = fetch_data_from(url).await; -println!("{data}"); -``` - -That is exactly what Rust’s *async* (short for *asynchronous*) abstraction gives -us. In this chapter, you’ll learn all about async as we cover the following -topics: - -* How to use Rust’s `async` and `await` syntax +download each file. However, the overhead of the system resources used by those +threads would eventually become a problem. It would be preferable if the call +didn’t block in the first place, and instead we could define a number of tasks +that we’d like our program to complete and allow the runtime to choose the best +order and manner in which to run them. + +That is exactly what Rust’s *async* (short for *asynchronous*) abstraction +gives us. In this chapter, you’ll learn all about async as we cover the +following topics: + +* How to use Rust’s `async` and `await` syntax and execute asynchronous + functions with a runtime * How to use the async model to solve some of the same challenges we looked at in Chapter 16 -* How multithreading and async provide complementary solutions, that you can +* How multithreading and async provide complementary solutions that you can combine in many cases Before we see how async works in practice, though, we need to take a short detour to discuss the differences between parallelism and concurrency. -### Parallelism and Concurrency +## Parallelism and Concurrency We’ve treated parallelism and concurrency as mostly interchangeable so far. Now -we need to distinguish between them more precisely, because the differences will -show up as we start working. +we need to distinguish between them more precisely, because the differences +will show up as we start working. Consider the different ways a team could split up work on a software project. -You could assign a single member multiple tasks, assign each member one task, or -use a mix of the two approaches. +You could assign a single member multiple tasks, assign each member one task, +or use a mix of the two approaches. When an individual works on several different tasks before any of them is -complete, this is *concurrency*. Maybe you have two different projects checked -out on your computer, and when you get bored or stuck on one project, you switch -to the other. You’re just one person, so you can’t make progress on both tasks -at the exact same time, but you can multi-task, making progress on one at a time -by switching between them (see Figure 17-1). +complete, this is *concurrency*. One way to implement concurrency is similar to +having two different projects checked out on your computer, and when you get +bored or stuck on one project, you switch to the other. You’re just one person, +so you can’t make progress on both tasks at the exact same time, but you can +multitask, making progress on one at a time by switching between them (see +Figure 17-1). -A diagram with boxes labeled Task A and Task B, with diamonds in them representing subtasks. There are arrows pointing from A1 to B1, B1 to A2, A2 to B2, B2 to A3, A3 to A4, and A4 to B3. The arrows between the subtasks cross the boxes between Task A and Task B. +A diagram with stacked boxes labeled Task A and Task B, with diamonds in them representing subtasks. Arrows point from A1 to B1, B1 to A2, A2 to B2, B2 to A3, A3 to A4, and A4 to B3. The arrows between the subtasks cross the boxes between Task A and Task B. Figure 17-1: A concurrent workflow, switching between Task A and Task B -When the team splits up a group of tasks by having each member take one task and -work on it alone, this is *parallelism*. Each person on the team can make +When the team splits up a group of tasks by having each member take one task +and work on it alone, this is *parallelism*. Each person on the team can make progress at the exact same time (see Figure 17-2). -A diagram with boxes labeled Task A and Task B, with diamonds in them representing subtasks. There are arrows pointing from A1 to A2, A2 to A3, A3 to A4, B1 to B2, and B2 to B3. No arrows cross between the boxes for Task A and Task B. +A diagram with stacked boxes labeled Task A and Task B, with diamonds in them representing subtasks. Arrows point from A1 to A2, A2 to A3, A3 to A4, B1 to B2, and B2 to B3. No arrows cross between the boxes for Task A and Task B. Figure 17-2: A parallel workflow, where work happens on Task A and Task B independently In both of these workflows, you might have to coordinate between different -tasks. Maybe you *thought* the task assigned to one person was totally +tasks. Maybe you thought the task assigned to one person was totally independent from everyone else’s work, but it actually requires another person on the team to finish their task first. Some of the work could be done in parallel, but some of it was actually *serial*: it could only happen in a series, one task after the other, as in Figure 17-3. -A diagram with boxes labeled Task A and Task B, with diamonds in them representing subtasks. There are arrows pointing from A1 to A2, A2 to a pair of thick vertical lines like a “pause” symbol, from that symbol to A3, B1 to B2, B2 to B3, which is below that symbol, B3 to A3, and B3 to B4. +A diagram with stacked boxes labeled Task A and Task B, with diamonds in them representing subtasks. In Task A, arrows point from A1 to A2, from A2 to a pair of thick vertical lines like a “pause” symbol, and from that symbol to A3. In task B, arrows point from B1 to B2, from B2 to B3, from B3 to A3, and from B3 to B4. Figure 17-3: A partially parallel workflow, where work happens on Task A and Task B independently until Task A3 is blocked on the results of Task B3. @@ -143,18 +147,18 @@ coworker are no longer able to work in parallel, and you’re also no longer abl to work concurrently on your own tasks. The same basic dynamics come into play with software and hardware. On a machine -with a single CPU core, the CPU can perform only one operation at a time, but it -can still work concurrently. Using tools such as threads, processes, and async, -the computer can pause one activity and switch to others before eventually -cycling back to that first activity again. On a machine with multiple CPU cores, -it can also do work in parallel. One core can be performing one task while -another core performs a completely unrelated one, and those operations actually -happen at the same time. - -When working with async in Rust, we’re always dealing with concurrency. -Depending on the hardware, the operating system, and the async runtime we are -using (more on async runtimes shortly), that concurrency may also use parallelism -under the hood. +with a single CPU core, the CPU can perform only one operation at a time, but +it can still work concurrently. Using tools such as threads, processes, and +async, the computer can pause one activity and switch to others before +eventually cycling back to that first activity again. On a machine with +multiple CPU cores, it can also do work in parallel. One core can be performing +one task while another core performs a completely unrelated one, and those +operations actually happen at the same time. + +Running async code in Rust usually happens concurrently. Depending on the +hardware, the operating system, and the async runtime we are using (more on +async runtimes shortly), that concurrency may also use parallelism under the +hood. Now, let’s dive into how async programming in Rust actually works. @@ -172,26 +176,26 @@ types that implement the `Future` trait. Each future holds its own information about the progress that has been made and what “ready” means. You can apply the `async` keyword to blocks and functions to specify that they -can be interrupted and resumed. Within an async block or async function, you can -use the `await` keyword to *await a future* (that is, wait for it to become +can be interrupted and resumed. Within an async block or async function, you +can use the `await` keyword to *await a future* (that is, wait for it to become ready). Any point where you await a future within an async block or function is -a potential spot for that async block or function to pause and resume. The -process of checking with a future to see if its value is available yet is called -*polling*. +a potential spot for that block or function to pause and resume. The process of +checking with a future to see if its value is available yet is called *polling*. Some other languages, such as C# and JavaScript, also use `async` and `await` -keywords for async programming. If you’re familiar with those languages, you may -notice some significant differences in how Rust does things, including how it -handles the syntax. That’s for good reason, as we’ll see! +keywords for async programming. If you’re familiar with those languages, you +may notice some significant differences in how Rust handles the syntax. That’s +for good reason, as we’ll see! When writing async Rust, we use the `async` and `await` keywords most of the time. Rust compiles them into equivalent code using the `Future` trait, much as -it compiles `for` loops into equivalent code using the `Iterator` trait. Because -Rust provides the `Future` trait, though, you can also implement it for your own -data types when you need to. Many of the functions we’ll see throughout this -chapter return types with their own implementations of `Future`. We’ll return to -the definition of the trait at the end of the chapter and dig into more of how -it works, but this is enough detail to keep us moving forward. +it compiles `for` loops into equivalent code using the `Iterator` trait. +Because Rust provides the `Future` trait, though, you can also implement it for +your own data types when you need to. Many of the functions we’ll see +throughout this chapter return types with their own implementations of +`Future`. We’ll return to the definition of the trait at the end of the chapter +and dig into more of how it works, but this is enough detail to keep us moving +forward. This may all feel a bit abstract, so let’s write our first async program: a little web scraper. We’ll pass in two URLs from the command line, fetch both of @@ -209,15 +213,14 @@ you’ll need, primarily from the `futures` and for Rust experimentation for async code, and it’s actually where the `Future` trait was originally designed. Tokio is the most widely used async runtime in Rust today, especially for web applications. There are other great runtimes out -there, and they may be more suitable for your purposes. We use the `tokio` crate -under the hood for `trpl` because it’s well tested and widely used. +there, and they may be more suitable for your purposes. We use the `tokio` +crate under the hood for `trpl` because it’s well tested and widely used. In some cases, `trpl` also renames or wraps the original APIs to keep you focused on the details relevant to this chapter. If you want to understand what -the crate does, we encourage you to check out its source -code. You’ll be able to see what crate each -re-export comes from, and we’ve left extensive comments explaining what the -crate does. +the crate does, we encourage you to check out its source code at *https://github.com/rust-lang/book/tree/main/packages/trpl*. +You’ll be able to see what crate each re-export comes from, and we’ve left +extensive comments explaining what the crate does. Create a new binary project named `hello-async` and add the `trpl` crate as a dependency: @@ -236,7 +239,8 @@ page finishes that whole process first. ### Defining the page_title Function Let’s start by writing a function that takes one page URL as a parameter, makes -a request to it, and returns the text of the title element (see Listing 17-1). +a request to it, and returns the text of the `` element (see Listing +17-1). src/main.rs @@ -248,59 +252,59 @@ async fn page_title(url: &str) -> Option<String> { let response_text = response.text().await; Html::parse(&response_text) .select_first("title") - .map(|title_element| title_element.inner_html()) + .map(|title| title.inner_html()) } ``` Listing 17-1: Defining an async function to get the title element from an HTML page First, we define a function named `page_title` and mark it with the `async` -keyword. Then we use the `trpl::get` function to fetch whatever URL is passed in -and add the `await` keyword to await the response. To get the text of the -response, we call its `text` method, and once again await it with the `await` +keyword. Then we use the `trpl::get` function to fetch whatever URL is passed +in and add the `await` keyword to await the response. To get the text of the +`response`, we call its `text` method and once again await it with the `await` keyword. Both of these steps are asynchronous. For the `get` function, we have to wait for the server to send back the first part of its response, which will -include HTTP headers, cookies, and so on, and can be delivered separately from +include HTTP headers, cookies, and so on and can be delivered separately from the response body. Especially if the body is very large, it can take some time -for it all to arrive. Because we have to wait for the *entirety* of the response -to arrive, the `text` method is also async. +for it all to arrive. Because we have to wait for the *entirety* of the +response to arrive, the `text` method is also async. We have to explicitly await both of these futures, because futures in Rust are *lazy*: they don’t do anything until you ask them to with the `await` keyword. (In fact, Rust will show a compiler warning if you don’t use a future.) This -might remind you of Chapter 13’s discussion of iterators in the section -Processing a Series of Items With Iterators. +might remind you of the discussion of iterators in the “Processing a Series of +Items with Iterators” section in Chapter 13. Iterators do nothing unless you call their `next` method—whether directly or by using `for` loops or methods such as `map` that use `next` under the hood. Likewise, futures do nothing unless you explicitly ask them to. This laziness allows Rust to avoid running async code until it’s actually needed. -> Note: This is different from the behavior we saw in the previous chapter when -> using `thread::spawn` in Creating a New Thread with -> spawn at *ch16-01-threads.html#creating-a-new-thread-with-spawn*<!--ignore-->, where the closure we passed to another -> thread started running immediately. It’s also different from how many other -> languages approach async. But it’s important for Rust, and we’ll see why -> later. +> Note: This is different from the behavior we saw when using `thread::spawn` +> in the “Creating a New Thread with spawn” +> section in Chapter 16, where the closure we passed to another thread started +> running immediately. It’s also different from how many other languages +> approach async. But it’s important for Rust to be able to provide its +> performance guarantees, just as it is with iterators. Once we have `response_text`, we can parse it into an instance of the `Html` type using `Html::parse`. Instead of a raw string, we now have a data type we can use to work with the HTML as a richer data structure. In particular, we can use the `select_first` method to find the first instance of a given CSS -selector. By passing the string `"title"`, we’ll get the first `<title>` element -in the document, if there is one. Because there may not be any matching element, -`select_first` returns an `Option<ElementRef>`. Finally, we use the +selector. By passing the string `"title"`, we’ll get the first `<title>` +element in the document, if there is one. Because there may not be any matching +element, `select_first` returns an `Option<ElementRef>`. Finally, we use the `Option::map` method, which lets us work with the item in the `Option` if it’s present, and do nothing if it isn’t. (We could also use a `match` expression here, but `map` is more idiomatic.) In the body of the function we supply to -`map`, we call `inner_html` on the `title_element` to get its content, which is -a `String`. When all is said and done, we have an `Option<String>`. +`map`, we call `inner_html` on the `title` to get its content, which is a +`String`. When all is said and done, we have an `Option<String>`. Notice that Rust’s `await` keyword goes *after* the expression you’re awaiting, not before it. That is, it’s a *postfix* keyword. This may differ from what you’re used to if you’ve used `async` in other languages, but in Rust it makes -chains of methods much nicer to work with. As a result, we can change the body -of `page_url_for` to chain the `trpl::get` and `text` function calls together -with `await` between them, as shown in Listing 17-2. +chains of methods much nicer to work with. As a result, we could change the +body of `page_title` to chain the `trpl::get` and `text` function calls +together with `await` between them, as shown in Listing 17-2. src/main.rs @@ -314,22 +318,22 @@ With that, we have successfully written our first async function! Before we add some code in `main` to call it, let’s talk a little more about what we’ve written and what it means. -When Rust sees a block marked with the `async` keyword, it compiles it into a -unique, anonymous data type that implements the `Future` trait. When Rust sees a -function marked with `async`, it compiles it into a non-async function whose -body is an async block. An async function’s return type is the type of the -anonymous data type the compiler creates for that async block. +When Rust sees a *block* marked with the `async` keyword, it compiles it into a +unique, anonymous data type that implements the `Future` trait. When Rust sees +a *function* marked with `async`, it compiles it into a non-async function +whose body is an async block. An async function’s return type is the type of +the anonymous data type the compiler creates for that async block. Thus, writing `async fn` is equivalent to writing a function that returns a *future* of the return type. To the compiler, a function definition such as the -`async fn page_title` in Listing 17-1 is equivalent to a non-async function -defined like this: +`async fn page_title` in Listing 17-1 is roughly equivalent to a non-async +function defined like this: ``` use std::future::Future; use trpl::Html; -fn page_title(url: &str) -> impl Future<Output = Option<String>> + '_ { +fn page_title(url: &str) -> impl Future<Output = Option<String>> { async move { let text = trpl::get(url).await.text().await; Html::parse(&text) @@ -343,36 +347,29 @@ Let’s walk through each part of the transformed version: * It uses the `impl Trait` syntax we discussed back in Chapter 10 in the “Traits as Parameters” section. -* The returned trait is a `Future` with an associated type of `Output`. Notice - that the `Output` type is `Option<String>`, which is the same as the original - return type from the `async fn` version of `page_title`. -* All of the code called in the body of the original function is wrapped in an - `async move` block. Remember that blocks are expressions. This whole block is - the expression returned from the function. +* The returned value implements the `Future` trait with an associated type of + `Output`. Notice that the `Output` type is `Option<String>`, which is the + same as the original return type from the `async fn` version of `page_title`. +* All of the code called in the body of the original function is wrapped in + an `async move` block. Remember that blocks are expressions. This whole block + is the expression returned from the function. * This async block produces a value with the type `Option<String>`, as just - described. That value matches the `Output` type in the return type. This - is just like other blocks you have seen. + described. That value matches the `Output` type in the return type. This is + just like other blocks you have seen. * The new function body is an `async move` block because of how it uses the - `url` parameter. (We’ll talk much more about `async` versus `async move` later - in the chapter.) -* The new version of the function has a kind of lifetime we haven’t seen before - in the output type: `'_`. Because the function returns a future that refers to - a reference—in this case, the reference from the `url` parameter—we need to - tell Rust that we want that reference to be included. We don’t have to name - the lifetime here, because Rust is smart enough to know there’s only one - reference that could be involved, but we *do* have to be explicit that the - resulting future is bound by that lifetime. + `url` parameter. (We’ll talk much more about `async` versus `async move` + later in the chapter.) Now we can call `page_title` in `main`. -## Determining a Single Page’s Title +<!-- Old headings. Do not remove or links may break. --> + +<a id ="determining-a-single-pages-title"></a> + +### Executing an Async Function with a Runtime -To start, we’ll just get the title for a single page. In Listing 17-3, we follow -the same pattern we used in Chapter 12 to get command line arguments in the -Accepting Command Line Arguments section. Then we -pass the first URL `page_title` and await the result. Because the value -produced by the future is an `Option<String>`, we use a `match` expression to -print different messages to account for whether the page had a `<title>`. +To start, we’ll get the title for a single page, shown in Listing 17-3. +Unfortunately, this code doesn’t compile yet. src/main.rs @@ -389,9 +386,15 @@ async fn main() { Listing 17-3: Calling the `page_title` function from `main` with a user-supplied argument -Unfortunately, this code doesn’t compile. The only place we can use the `await` -keyword is in async functions or blocks, and Rust won’t let us mark the -special `main` function as `async`. +We follow the same pattern we used to get command line arguments in the +“Accepting Command Line Arguments” section in +Chapter 12. Then we pass the URL argument to `page_title` and await the result. +Because the value produced by the future is an `Option<String>`, we use a +`match` expression to print different messages to account for whether the page +had a `<title>`. + +The only place we can use the `await` keyword is in async functions or blocks, +and Rust won’t let us mark the special `main` function as `async`. <!-- manual-regeneration cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-03 @@ -412,7 +415,7 @@ a Rust crate that manages the details of executing asynchronous code. A program’s `main` function can *initialize* a runtime, but it’s not a runtime *itself*. (We’ll see more about why this is the case in a bit.) Every Rust program that executes async code has at least one place where it sets up a -runtime and executes the futures. +runtime that executes the futures. Most languages that support async bundle a runtime, but Rust does not. Instead, there are many different async runtimes available, each of which makes different @@ -422,18 +425,20 @@ needs than a microcontroller with a single core, a small amount of RAM, and no heap allocation ability. The crates that provide those runtimes also often supply async versions of common functionality such as file or network I/O. -Here, and throughout the rest of this chapter, we’ll use the `run` function from -the `trpl` crate, which takes a future as an argument and runs it to completion. -Behind the scenes, calling `run` sets up a runtime that’s used to run the future -passed in. Once the future completes, `run` returns whatever value the future -produced. - -We could pass the future returned by `page_title` directly to `run`, and once it -completed, we could match on the resulting `Option<String>`, as -we tried to do in Listing 17-3. However, for most of the examples in the chapter -(and most async code in the real world), we’ll be doing more than just one -async function call, so instead we’ll pass an `async` block and explicitly -await the result of the `page_title` call, as in Listing 17-4. +Here, and throughout the rest of this chapter, we’ll use the `block_on` +function from the `trpl` crate, which takes a future as an argument and blocks +the current thread until this future runs to completion. Behind the scenes, +calling `block_on` sets up a runtime using the `tokio` crate that’s used to run +the future passed in (the `trpl` crate’s `block_on` behavior is similar to +other runtime crates’ `block_on` functions). Once the future completes, +`block_on` returns whatever value the future produced. + +We could pass the future returned by `page_title` directly to `block_on` and, +once it completed, we could match on the resulting `Option<String>` as we tried +to do in Listing 17-3. However, for most of the examples in the chapter (and +most async code in the real world), we’ll be doing more than just one async +function call, so instead we’ll pass an `async` block and explicitly await the +result of the `page_title` call, as in Listing 17-4. src/main.rs @@ -443,7 +448,7 @@ src/main.rs fn main() { let args: Vec<String> = std::env::args().collect(); - trpl::run(async { + trpl::block_on(async { let url = &args[1]; match page_title(url).await { Some(title) => println!("The title for {url} was {title}"), @@ -453,34 +458,34 @@ fn main() { } ``` -Listing 17-4: Awaiting an async block with `trpl::run` +Listing 17-4: Awaiting an async block with `trpl::block_on` When we run this code, we get the behavior we expected initially: <!-- manual-regeneration cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-04 cargo build # skip all the build noise -cargo run https://www.rust-lang.org +cargo run -- "https://www.rust-lang.org" # copy the output here --> ``` -$ cargo run -- https://www.rust-lang.org +$ cargo run -- "https://www.rust-lang.org" Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.05s Running `target/debug/async_await 'https://www.rust-lang.org'` The title for https://www.rust-lang.org was Rust Programming Language ``` -Phew—we finally have some working async code! But before we add the code to race -the two sites against each other, let’s briefly turn our attention back to how +Phew—we finally have some working async code! But before we add the code to +race two sites against each other, let’s briefly turn our attention back to how futures work. Each *await point*—that is, every place where the code uses the `await` -keyword—represents a place where control is handed back to the runtime. To -make that work, Rust needs to keep track of the state involved in the async -block so that the runtime can kick off some other work and then come back when -it’s ready to try advancing the first one again. This is an invisible state machine, +keyword—represents a place where control is handed back to the runtime. To make +that work, Rust needs to keep track of the state involved in the async block so +that the runtime could kick off some other work and then come back when it’s +ready to try advancing the first one again. This is an invisible state machine, as if you’d written an enum like this to save the current state at each await point: @@ -496,32 +501,36 @@ Writing the code to transition between each state by hand would be tedious and error-prone, however, especially when you need to add more functionality and more states to the code later. Fortunately, the Rust compiler creates and manages the state machine data structures for async code automatically. The -normal borrowing and ownership rules around data structures all still apply, and -happily, the compiler also handles checking those for us and provides useful -error messages. We’ll work through a few of those later in the chapter. +normal borrowing and ownership rules around data structures all still apply, +and happily, the compiler also handles checking those for us and provides +useful error messages. We’ll work through a few of those later in the chapter. -Ultimately, something has to execute this state machine, and that something is a -runtime. (This is why you may come across references to *executors* -when looking into runtimes: an executor is the part of a runtime responsible for +Ultimately, something has to execute this state machine, and that something is +a runtime. (This is why you may come across mentions of *executors* when +looking into runtimes: an executor is the part of a runtime responsible for executing the async code.) Now you can see why the compiler stopped us from making `main` itself an async function back in Listing 17-3. If `main` were an async function, something else would need to manage the state machine for whatever future `main` returned, but -`main` is the starting point for the program! Instead, we called the `trpl::run` -function in `main` to set up a runtime and run the future returned by the -`async` block until it returns `Ready`. +`main` is the starting point for the program! Instead, we called the +`trpl::block_on` function in `main` to set up a runtime and run the future +returned by the `async` block until it’s done. > Note: Some runtimes provide macros so you *can* write an async `main` -> function. Those macros rewrite `async fn main() { ... }` to be a normal `fn main`, which does the same thing we did by hand in Listing 17-5: call a -> function that runs a future to completion the way `trpl::run` does. +> function. Those macros rewrite `async fn main() { ... }` to be a normal `fn main`, which does the same thing we did by hand in Listing 17-4: call a +> function that runs a future to completion the way `trpl::block_on` does. Now let’s put these pieces together and see how we can write concurrent code. -### Racing Our Two URLs Against Each Other +<!-- Old headings. Do not remove or links may break. --> + +<a id="racing-our-two-urls-against-each-other"></a> + +### Racing Two URLs Against Each Other Concurrently In Listing 17-5, we call `page_title` with two different URLs passed in from the -command line and race them. +command line and race them by selecting whichever future finishes first. src/main.rs @@ -533,48 +542,48 @@ use trpl::{Either, Html}; fn main() { let args: Vec<String> = std::env::args().collect(); - trpl::run(async { + trpl::block_on(async { let title_fut_1 = page_title(&args[1]); let title_fut_2 = page_title(&args[2]); let (url, maybe_title) = - match trpl::race(title_fut_1, title_fut_2).await { + match trpl::select(title_fut_1, title_fut_2).await { Either::Left(left) => left, Either::Right(right) => right, }; println!("{url} returned first"); match maybe_title { - Some(title) => println!("Its page title is: '{title}'"), - None => println!("Its title could not be parsed."), + Some(title) => println!("Its page title was: '{title}'"), + None => println!("It had no title."), } }) } async fn page_title(url: &str) -> (&str, Option<String>) { - let text = trpl::get(url).await.text().await; - let title = Html::parse(&text) + let response_text = trpl::get(url).await.text().await; + let title = Html::parse(&response_text) .select_first("title") .map(|title| title.inner_html()); (url, title) } ``` -Listing 17-5: +Listing 17-5: Calling `page_title` for two URLs to see which returns first -We begin by calling `page_title` for each of the user-supplied URLs. We save the -resulting futures as `title_fut_1` and `title_fut_2`. Remember, these don’t do -anything yet, because futures are lazy and we haven’t yet awaited them. Then we -pass the futures to `trpl::race`, which returns a value to indicate which of the -futures passed to it finishes first. +We begin by calling `page_title` for each of the user-supplied URLs. We save +the resulting futures as `title_fut_1` and `title_fut_2`. Remember, these don’t +do anything yet, because futures are lazy and we haven’t yet awaited them. Then +we pass the futures to `trpl::select`, which returns a value to indicate which +of the futures passed to it finishes first. -> Note: Under the hood, `race` is built on a more general function, `select`, -> which you will encounter more often in real-world Rust code. A `select` -> function can do a lot of things that the `trpl::race` function can’t, but it -> also has some additional complexity that we can skip over for now. +> Note: Under the hood, `trpl::select` is built on a more general `select` +> function defined in the `futures` crate. The `futures` crate’s `select` +> function can do a lot of things that the `trpl::select` function can’t, but +> it also has some additional complexity that we can skip over for now. Either future can legitimately “win,” so it doesn’t make sense to return a -`Result`. Instead, `race` returns a type we haven’t seen before, +`Result`. Instead, `trpl::select` returns a type we haven’t seen before, `trpl::Either`. The `Either` type is somewhat similar to a `Result` in that it has two cases. Unlike `Result`, though, there is no notion of success or failure baked into `Either`. Instead, it uses `Left` and `Right` to indicate @@ -587,33 +596,33 @@ enum Either<A, B> { } ``` -The `race` function returns `Left` with that future’s output if the first +The `select` function returns `Left` with that future’s output if the first argument wins, and `Right` with the second future argument’s output if *that* one wins. This matches the order the arguments appear in when calling the function: the first argument is to the left of the second argument. -We also update `page_title` to return the same URL passed in. That way, if -the page that returns first does not have a `<title>` we can resolve, we can -still print a meaningful message. With that information available, we wrap up by +We also update `page_title` to return the same URL passed in. That way, if the +page that returns first does not have a `<title>` we can resolve, we can still +print a meaningful message. With that information available, we wrap up by updating our `println!` output to indicate both which URL finished first and what, if any, the `<title>` is for the web page at that URL. You have built a small working web scraper now! Pick a couple URLs and run the -command line tool. You may discover that some sites are consistently faster than -others, while in other cases the faster site varies from run to run. More +command line tool. You may discover that some sites are consistently faster +than others, while in other cases the faster site varies from run to run. More importantly, you’ve learned the basics of working with futures, so now we can dig deeper into what we can do with async. <!-- TODO: map source link version to version of Rust? --> -## Applying Concurrency with Async - <!-- Old headings. Do not remove or links may break. --> <a id="concurrency-with-async"></a> +## Applying Concurrency with Async + In this section, we’ll apply async to some of the same concurrency challenges -we tackled with threads in chapter 16. Because we already talked about a lot of +we tackled with threads in Chapter 16. Because we already talked about a lot of the key ideas there, in this section we’ll focus on what’s different between threads and futures. @@ -629,12 +638,12 @@ characteristics. ### Creating a New Task with spawn_task -The first operation we tackled in Creating a New Thread with -Spawn was counting up on two separate threads. -Let’s do the same using async. The `trpl` crate supplies a `spawn_task` function -that looks very similar to the `thread::spawn` API, and a `sleep` function -that is an async version of the `thread::sleep` API. We can use these together -to implement the counting example, as shown in Listing 17-6. +The first operation we tackled in the “Creating a New Thread with +`spawn`” section in Chapter 16 was counting up on +two separate threads. Let’s do the same using async. The `trpl` crate supplies +a `spawn_task` function that looks very similar to the `thread::spawn` API, and +a `sleep` function that is an async version of the `thread::sleep` API. We can +use these together to implement the counting example, as shown in Listing 17-6. src/main.rs @@ -642,7 +651,7 @@ src/main.rs use std::time::Duration; fn main() { - trpl::run(async { + trpl::block_on(async { trpl::spawn_task(async { for i in 1..10 { println!("hi number {i} from the first task!"); @@ -660,15 +669,15 @@ fn main() { Listing 17-6: Creating a new task to print one thing while the main task prints something else -As our starting point, we set up our `main` function with `trpl::run` so that -our top-level function can be async. +As our starting point, we set up our `main` function with `trpl::block_on` so +that our top-level function can be async. > Note: From this point forward in the chapter, every example will include this -> exact same wrapping code with `trpl::run` in `main`, so we’ll often skip it -> just as we do with `main`. Don’t forget to include it in your code! +> exact same wrapping code with `trpl::block_on` in `main`, so we’ll often skip it +> just as we do with `main`. Remember to include it in your code! -Then we write two loops within that block, each containing a `trpl::sleep` call, -which waits for half a second (500 milliseconds) before sending the next +Then we write two loops within that block, each containing a `trpl::sleep` +call, which waits for half a second (500 milliseconds) before sending the next message. We put one loop in the body of a `trpl::spawn_task` and the other in a top-level `for` loop. We also add an `await` after the `sleep` calls. @@ -692,14 +701,14 @@ hi number 4 from the second task! hi number 5 from the first task! ``` -This version stops as soon as the `for` loop in the body of the main async block -finishes, because the task spawned by `spawn_task` is shut down when the `main` -function ends. If you want it to run all the way to the task’s completion, you -will need to use a join handle to wait for the first task to complete. With -threads, we used the `join` method to “block” until the thread was done running. -In Listing 17-7, we can use `await` to do the same thing, because the task -handle itself is a future. Its `Output` type is a `Result`, so we also unwrap it -after awaiting it. +This version stops as soon as the `for` loop in the body of the main async +block finishes, because the task spawned by `spawn_task` is shut down when the +`main` function ends. If you want it to run all the way to the task’s +completion, you will need to use a join handle to wait for the first task to +complete. With threads, we used the `join` method to “block” until the thread +was done running. In Listing 17-7, we can use `await` to do the same thing, +because the task handle itself is a future. Its `Output` type is a `Result`, so +we also unwrap it after awaiting it. src/main.rs @@ -721,7 +730,7 @@ src/main.rs Listing 17-7: Using `await` with a join handle to run a task to completion -This updated version runs until *both* loops finish. +This updated version runs until *both* loops finish: <!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant; the changes are likely to be due to the threads running differently rather than @@ -743,9 +752,9 @@ hi number 8 from the first task! hi number 9 from the first task! ``` -So far, it looks like async and threads give us the same basic outcomes, just -with different syntax: using `await` instead of calling `join` on the join -handle, and awaiting the `sleep` calls. +So far, it looks like async and threads give us similar outcomes, just with +different syntax: using `await` instead of calling `join` on the join handle, +and awaiting the `sleep` calls. The bigger difference is that we didn’t need to spawn another operating system thread to do this. In fact, we don’t even need to spawn a task here. Because @@ -753,15 +762,15 @@ async blocks compile to anonymous futures, we can put each loop in an async block and have the runtime run them both to completion using the `trpl::join` function. -In the section Waiting for All Threads to Finishing Using `join` -Handles, we showed how to use the `join` method on -the `JoinHandle` type returned when you call `std::thread::spawn`. The -`trpl::join` function is similar, but for futures. When you give it two futures, -it produces a single new future whose output is a tuple containing the output of -each future you passed in once they *both* complete. Thus, in Listing 17-8, we -use `trpl::join` to wait for both `fut1` and `fut2` to finish. We do *not* await -`fut1` and `fut2` but instead the new future produced by `trpl::join`. We ignore -the output, because it’s just a tuple containing two unit values. +In the “Waiting for All Threads to Finish” +section in Chapter 16, we showed how to use the `join` method on the +`JoinHandle` type returned when you call `std::thread::spawn`. The `trpl::join` +function is similar, but for futures. When you give it two futures, it produces +a single new future whose output is a tuple containing the output of each +future you passed in once they *both* complete. Thus, in Listing 17-8, we use +`trpl::join` to wait for both `fut1` and `fut2` to finish. We do *not* await +`fut1` and `fut2` but instead the new future produced by `trpl::join`. We +ignore the output, because it’s just a tuple containing two unit values. src/main.rs @@ -808,16 +817,17 @@ hi number 9 from the first task! ``` Now, you’ll see the exact same order every time, which is very different from -what we saw with threads. That is because the `trpl::join` function is *fair*, -meaning it checks each future equally often, alternating between them, and never -lets one race ahead if the other is ready. With threads, the operating system -decides which thread to check and how long to let it run. With async Rust, the -runtime decides which task to check. (In practice, the details get complicated -because an async runtime might use operating system threads under the hood as -part of how it manages concurrency, so guaranteeing fairness can be more work -for a runtime—but it’s still possible!) Runtimes don’t have to guarantee -fairness for any given operation, and they often offer different APIs to let you -choose whether or not you want fairness. +what we saw with threads and with `trpl::spawn_task` in Listing 17-7. That is +because the `trpl::join` function is *fair*, meaning it checks each future +equally often, alternating between them, and never lets one race ahead if the +other is ready. With threads, the operating system decides which thread to +check and how long to let it run. With async Rust, the runtime decides which +task to check. (In practice, the details get complicated because an async +runtime might use operating system threads under the hood as part of how it +manages concurrency, so guaranteeing fairness can be more work for a +runtime—but it’s still possible!) Runtimes don’t have to guarantee fairness for +any given operation, and they often offer different APIs to let you choose +whether or not you want fairness. Try some of these variations on awaiting the futures and see what they do: @@ -832,16 +842,17 @@ each case *before* running the code! <!-- Old headings. Do not remove or links may break. --> <a id="message-passing"></a> +<a id="counting-up-on-two-tasks-using-message-passing"></a> -### Counting Up on Two Tasks Using Message Passing +### Sending Data Between Two Tasks Using Message Passing Sharing data between futures will also be familiar: we’ll use message passing again, but this time with async versions of the types and functions. We’ll take -a slightly different path than we did in Using Message Passing to Transfer Data -Between Threads to illustrate some of -the key differences between thread-based and futures-based concurrency. In -Listing 17-9, we’ll begin with just a single async block—*not* spawning a -separate task as we spawned a separate thread. +a slightly different path than we did in the “Transfer Data Between Threads +with Message Passing” section in +Chapter 16 to illustrate some of the key differences between thread-based and +futures-based concurrency. In Listing 17-9, we’ll begin with just a single +async block—*not* spawning a separate task as we spawned a separate thread. src/main.rs @@ -852,7 +863,7 @@ src/main.rs tx.send(val).unwrap(); let received = rx.recv().await.unwrap(); - println!("Got: {received}"); + println!("received '{received}'"); ``` Listing 17-9: Creating an async channel and assigning the two halves to `tx` and `rx` @@ -861,29 +872,29 @@ Here, we use `trpl::channel`, an async version of the multiple-producer, single-consumer channel API we used with threads back in Chapter 16. The async version of the API is only a little different from the thread-based version: it uses a mutable rather than an immutable receiver `rx`, and its `recv` method -produces a future we need to await rather than producing the value directly. Now -we can send messages from the sender to the receiver. Notice that we don’t have -to spawn a separate thread or even a task; we merely need to await the `rx.recv` -call. - -The synchronous `Receiver::recv` method in `std::mpsc::channel` blocks until -it receives a message. The `trpl::Receiver::recv` method does not, because it -is async. Instead of blocking, it hands control back to the runtime until either -a message is received or the send side of the channel closes. By contrast, we +produces a future we need to await rather than producing the value directly. +Now we can send messages from the sender to the receiver. Notice that we don’t +have to spawn a separate thread or even a task; we merely need to await the +`rx.recv` call. + +The synchronous `Receiver::recv` method in `std::mpsc::channel` blocks until it +receives a message. The `trpl::Receiver::recv` method does not, because it is +async. Instead of blocking, it hands control back to the runtime until either a +message is received or the send side of the channel closes. By contrast, we don’t await the `send` call, because it doesn’t block. It doesn’t need to, because the channel we’re sending it into is unbounded. -> Note: Because all of this async code runs in an async block in a `trpl::run` -> call, everything within it can avoid blocking. However, the code *outside* it -> will block on the `run` function returning. That’s the whole point of the -> `trpl::run` function: it lets you *choose* where to block on some set of async -> code, and thus where to transition between sync and async code. In most async -> runtimes, `run` is actually named `block_on` for exactly this reason. +> Note: Because all of this async code runs in an async block in a +> `trpl::block_on` call, everything within it can avoid blocking. However, the +> code *outside* it will block on the `block_on` function returning. That’s the +> whole point of the `trpl::block_on` function: it lets you *choose* where to +> block on some set of async code, and thus where to transition between sync +> and async code. -Notice two things about this example. First, the message will arrive right away. -Second, although we use a future here, there’s no concurrency yet. Everything -in the listing happens in sequence, just as it would if there were no futures -involved. +Notice two things about this example. First, the message will arrive right +away. Second, although we use a future here, there’s no concurrency yet. +Everything in the listing happens in sequence, just as it would if there were +no futures involved. Let’s address the first part by sending a series of messages and sleeping in between them, as shown in Listing 17-10. @@ -921,15 +932,16 @@ be waiting on some *unknown* number of messages, so we need to keep waiting until we determine that there are no more messages. In Listing 16-10, we used a `for` loop to process all the items received from a -synchronous channel. Rust doesn’t yet have a way to write a `for` loop over an -*asynchronous* series of items, however, so we need to use a loop we haven’t -seen before: the `while let` conditional loop. This is the loop version of the -`if let` construct we saw back in the section Concise Control Flow with `if let` and `let else`. The loop will continue executing as -long as the pattern it specifies continues to match the value. - -The `rx.recv` call produces a future, which we await. The runtime will pause the -future until it is ready. Once a message arrives, the future will resolve to -`Some(message)` as many times as a message arrives. When the channel closes, +synchronous channel. Rust doesn’t yet have a way to use a `for` loop with an +*asynchronously produced* series of items, however, so we need to use a loop we +haven’t seen before: the `while let` conditional loop. This is the loop version +of the `if let` construct we saw back in the “Concise Control Flow with `if let` and `let else`” section in Chapter 6. The loop +will continue executing as long as the pattern it specifies continues to match +the value. + +The `rx.recv` call produces a future, which we await. The runtime will pause +the future until it is ready. Once a message arrives, the future will resolve +to `Some(message)` as many times as a message arrives. When the channel closes, regardless of whether *any* messages have arrived, the future will instead resolve to `None` to indicate that there are no more values and thus we should stop polling—that is, stop awaiting. @@ -940,12 +952,14 @@ use it in the loop body, just as we could with `if let`. If the result is `None`, the loop ends. Every time the loop completes, it hits the await point again, so the runtime pauses it again until another message arrives. -The code now successfully sends and receives all of the messages. Unfortunately, -there are still a couple of problems. For one thing, the messages do not arrive -at half-second intervals. They arrive all at once, 2 (2,000 milliseconds) after -we start the program. For another, this program also never exits! Instead, it -waits forever for new messages. You will need to shut it down using <span -class="keystroke">ctrl-c</span>. +The code now successfully sends and receives all of the messages. +Unfortunately, there are still a couple of problems. For one thing, the +messages do not arrive at half-second intervals. They arrive all at once, 2 +seconds (2,000 milliseconds) after we start the program. For another, this +program also never exits! Instead, it waits forever for new messages. You will +need to shut it down using <kbd>ctrl</kbd>-<kbd>C</kbd>. + +#### Code Within One Async Block Executes Linearly Let’s start by examining why the messages come in all at once after the full delay, rather than coming in with delays between each one. Within a given async @@ -955,16 +969,16 @@ in which they’re executed when the program runs. There’s only one async block in Listing 17-10, so everything in it runs linearly. There’s still no concurrency. All the `tx.send` calls happen, interspersed with all of the `trpl::sleep` calls and their associated await -points. Only then does the `while let` loop get to go through any of the `await` -points on the `recv` calls. +points. Only then does the `while let` loop get to go through any of the +`await` points on the `recv` calls. -To get the behavior we want, where the sleep delay happens between each message, -we need to put the `tx` and `rx` operations in their own async blocks, as shown -in Listing 17-11. Then the runtime can execute each of them separately using -`trpl::join`, just as in the counting example. Once again, we await the result -of calling `trpl::join`, not the individual futures. If we awaited the -individual futures in sequence, we would just end up back in a sequential -flow—exactly what we’re trying *not* to do. +To get the behavior we want, where the sleep delay happens between each +message, we need to put the `tx` and `rx` operations in their own async blocks, +as shown in Listing 17-11. Then the runtime can execute each of them separately +using `trpl::join`, just as in Listing 17-8. Once again, we await the result of +calling `trpl::join`, not the individual futures. If we awaited the individual +futures in sequence, we would just end up back in a sequential flow—exactly +what we’re trying *not* to do. <!-- We cannot test this one because it never stops! --> @@ -999,41 +1013,39 @@ Listing 17-11: Separating `send` and `recv` into their own `async` blocks and aw With the updated code in Listing 17-11, the messages get printed at 500-millisecond intervals, rather than all in a rush after 2 seconds. -The program still never exits, though, because of the way `while let` loop +#### Moving Ownership Into an Async Block + +The program still never exits, though, because of the way the `while let` loop interacts with `trpl::join`: * The future returned from `trpl::join` completes only once *both* futures passed to it have completed. -* The `tx` future completes once it finishes sleeping after sending the last +* The `tx_fut` future completes once it finishes sleeping after sending the last message in `vals`. -* The `rx` future won’t complete until the `while let` loop ends. +* The `rx_fut` future won’t complete until the `while let` loop ends. * The `while let` loop won’t end until awaiting `rx.recv` produces `None`. * Awaiting `rx.recv` will return `None` only once the other end of the channel is closed. * The channel will close only if we call `rx.close` or when the sender side, `tx`, is dropped. * We don’t call `rx.close` anywhere, and `tx` won’t be dropped until the - outermost async block passed to `trpl::run` ends. + outermost async block passed to `trpl::block_on` ends. * The block can’t end because it is blocked on `trpl::join` completing, which takes us back to the top of this list. -We could manually close `rx` by calling `rx.close` somewhere, but that doesn’t -make much sense. Stopping after handling some arbitrary number of messages would -make the program shut down, but we could miss messages. We need some other way -to make sure that `tx` gets dropped *before* the end of the function. - -Right now, the async block where we send the messages only borrows `tx` because -sending a message doesn’t require ownership, but if we could move `tx` into that -async block, it would be dropped once that block ends. In the Chapter 13 section -Capturing References or Moving Ownership, you -learned how to use the `move` keyword with closures, and, as discussed in the -Chapter 16 section Using `move` Closures with Threads, we often need to move data into closures when working with threads. The -same basic dynamics apply to async blocks, so the `move` keyword works with -async blocks just as it does with closures. +Right now, the async block where we send the messages only *borrows* `tx` +because sending a message doesn’t require ownership, but if we could *move* +`tx` into that async block, it would be dropped once that block ends. In the +“Capturing References or Moving Ownership” +section in Chapter 13, you learned how to use the `move` keyword with closures, +and, as discussed in the “Using `move` Closures with +Threads” section in Chapter 16, we often need to +move data into closures when working with threads. The same basic dynamics +apply to async blocks, so the `move` keyword works with async blocks just as it +does with closures. In Listing 17-12, we change the block used to send messages from `async` to -`async move`. When we run *this* version of the code, it shuts down gracefully -after the last message is sent and received. +`async move`. src/main.rs @@ -1041,29 +1053,16 @@ src/main.rs let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); let tx_fut = async move { - let vals = vec![ - String::from("hi"), - String::from("from"), - String::from("the"), - String::from("future"), - ]; - - for val in vals { - tx.send(val).unwrap(); - trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(500)).await; - } - }; + // --snip-- +``` - let rx_fut = async { - while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { - println!("received '{value}'"); - } - }; +Listing 17-12: A revision of the code from Listing 17-11 that correctly shuts down when complete - trpl::join(tx_fut, rx_fut).await; -``` +When we run *this* version of the code, it shuts down gracefully after the last +message is sent and received. Next, let’s see what would need to change to send +data from more than one future. -Listing 17-12: A revision of the code from Listing 17-11 that correctly shuts down when complete +#### Joining a Number of Futures with the join! Macro This async channel is also a multiple-producer channel, so we can call `clone` on `tx` if we want to send messages from multiple futures, as shown in Listing @@ -1109,7 +1108,7 @@ src/main.rs } }; - trpl::join3(tx1_fut, tx_fut, rx_fut).await; + trpl::join!(tx1_fut, tx_fut, rx_fut); ``` Listing 17-13: Using multiple producers with async blocks @@ -1123,12 +1122,16 @@ the order in which the futures are awaited, not in which they’re created. Both of the async blocks for sending messages need to be `async move` blocks so that both `tx` and `tx1` get dropped when those blocks finish. Otherwise, we’ll -end up back in the same infinite loop we started out in. Finally, we switch from -`trpl::join` to `trpl::join3` to handle the additional future. +end up back in the same infinite loop we started out in. + +Finally, we switch from `trpl::join` to `trpl::join!` to handle the additional +future: the `join!` macro awaits an arbitrary number of futures where we know +the number of futures at compile time. We’ll discuss awaiting a collection of +an unknown number of futures later in this chapter. Now we see all the messages from both sending futures, and because the sending futures use slightly different delays after sending, the messages are also -received at those different intervals. +received at those different intervals: <!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant; the changes are likely to be due to the threads running differently rather than @@ -1145,407 +1148,22 @@ received 'for' received 'you' ``` -This is a good start, but it limits us to just a handful of futures: two with -`join`, or three with `join3`. Let’s see how we might work with more futures. - -## Working with Any Number of Futures - -When we switched from using two futures to three in the previous section, we -also had to switch from using `join` to using `join3`. It would be annoying to -have to call a different function every time we changed the number of futures we -wanted to join. Happily, we have a macro form of `join` to which we can pass an -arbitrary number of arguments. It also handles awaiting the futures itself. -Thus, we could rewrite the code from Listing 17-13 to use `join!` instead of -`join3`, as in Listing 17-14. - -src/main.rs - -``` - trpl::join!(tx1_fut, tx_fut, rx_fut); -``` - -Listing 17-14: Using `join!` to wait for multiple futures - -This is definitely an improvement over swapping between `join` and -`join3` and `join4` and so on! However, even this macro form only works -when we know the number of futures ahead of time. In real-world Rust, -though, pushing futures into a collection and then waiting on some or -all the futures of them to complete is a common pattern. - -To check all the futures in some collection, we’ll need to iterate over and -join on *all* of them. The `trpl::join_all` function accepts any type that -implements the `Iterator` trait, which you learned about back in The Iterator -Trait and the `next` Method Chapter 13, so -it seems like just the ticket. Let’s try putting our futures in a vector and -replacing `join!` with `join_all` as show in Listing 17-15. - - -``` - let futures = vec![tx1_fut, rx_fut, tx_fut]; - - trpl::join_all(futures).await; -``` - -Listing 17-15: Storing anonymous futures in a vector and calling `join_all` +We’ve explored how to use message passing to send data between futures, how +code within an async block runs sequentially, how to move ownership into an +async block, and how to join multiple futures. Next, let’s discuss how and why +to tell the runtime it can switch to another task. -Unfortunately, this code doesn’t compile. Instead, we get this error: - -<!-- manual-regeneration -cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-15/ -cargo build -copy just the compiler error ---> - -``` -error[E0308]: mismatched types - --> src/main.rs:45:37 - | -10 | let tx1_fut = async move { - | ---------- the expected `async` block -... -24 | let rx_fut = async { - | ----- the found `async` block -... -45 | let futures = vec![tx1_fut, rx_fut, tx_fut]; - | ^^^^^^ expected `async` block, found a -different `async` block - | - = note: expected `async` block `{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}` - found `async` block `{async block@src/main.rs:24:22: 24:27}` - = note: no two async blocks, even if identical, have the same type - = help: consider pinning your async block and casting it to a trait object -``` - -This might be surprising. After all, none of the async blocks returns anything, -so each one produces a `Future<Output = ()>`. Remember that `Future` is a trait, -though, and that the compiler creates a unique enum for each async block. You -can’t put two different hand-written structs in a `Vec`, and the same rule -applies to the different enums generated by the compiler. - -To make this work, we need to use *trait objects*, just as we did in “Returning -Errors from the run function” in Chapter 12. (We’ll cover -trait objects in detail in Chapter 18.) Using trait objects lets us treat each -of the anonymous futures produced by these types as the same type, because all -of them implement the `Future` trait. - -> Note: In the Chapter 8 section Using an Enum to Store Multiple -> Values, we discussed another way to include multiple -> types in a `Vec`: using an enum to represent each type that can appear in the -> vector. We can’t do that here, though. For one thing, we have no way to name -> the different types, because they are anonymous. For another, the reason we -> reached for a vector and `join_all` in the first place was to be able to work -> with a dynamic collection of futures where we only care that they have the -> same output type. - -We start by wrapping each future in the `vec!` in a `Box::new`, as shown in -Listing 17-16. - -src/main.rs - -``` - let futures = - vec![Box::new(tx1_fut), Box::new(rx_fut), Box::new(tx_fut)]; - - trpl::join_all(futures).await; -``` - -Listing 17-16: Using `Box::new` to align the types of the futures in a `Vec` - -Unfortunately, this code still doesn’t compile. In fact, we get the same basic -error we got before for both the second and third `Box::new` calls, as well as -new errors referring to the `Unpin` trait. We’ll come back to the `Unpin` errors -in a moment. First, let’s fix the type errors on the `Box::new` calls by -explicitly annotating the type of the `futures` variable (see Listing 17-17). - -src/main.rs - -``` - let futures: Vec<Box<dyn Future<Output = ()>>> = - vec![Box::new(tx1_fut), Box::new(rx_fut), Box::new(tx_fut)]; -``` - -Listing 17-17: Fixing the rest of the type mismatch errors by using an explicit type declaration - -This type declaration is a little involved, so let’s walk through it: - -1. The innermost type is the future itself. We note explicitly that the output - of the future is the unit type `()` by writing `Future<Output = ()>`. -1. Then we annotate the trait with `dyn` to mark it as dynamic. -1. The entire trait reference is wrapped in a `Box`. -1. Finally, we state explicitly that `futures` is a `Vec` containing these - items. - -That already made a big difference. Now when we run the compiler, we get only -the errors mentioning `Unpin`. Although there are three of them, their contents -are very similar. - -<!-- manual-regeneration -cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-16 -cargo build -# copy *only* the errors -# fix the paths ---> - -``` -error[E0308]: mismatched types - --> src/main.rs:46:46 - | -10 | let tx1_fut = async move { - | ---------- the expected `async` block -... -24 | let rx_fut = async { - | ----- the found `async` block -... -46 | vec![Box::new(tx1_fut), Box::new(rx_fut), Box::new(tx_fut)]; - | -------- ^^^^^^ expected `async` block, found a different `async` block - | | - | arguments to this function are incorrect - | - = note: expected `async` block `{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}` - found `async` block `{async block@src/main.rs:24:22: 24:27}` - = note: no two async blocks, even if identical, have the same type - = help: consider pinning your async block and casting it to a trait object -note: associated function defined here - --> file:///home/.rustup/toolchains/1.82/lib/rustlib/src/rust/library/alloc/src/boxed.rs:255:12 - | -255 | pub fn new(x: T) -> Self { - | ^^^ - -error[E0308]: mismatched types - --> src/main.rs:46:64 - | -10 | let tx1_fut = async move { - | ---------- the expected `async` block -... -30 | let tx_fut = async move { - | ---------- the found `async` block -... -46 | vec![Box::new(tx1_fut), Box::new(rx_fut), Box::new(tx_fut)]; - | -------- ^^^^^^ expected `async` block, found a different `async` block - | | - | arguments to this function are incorrect - | - = note: expected `async` block `{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}` - found `async` block `{async block@src/main.rs:30:22: 30:32}` - = note: no two async blocks, even if identical, have the same type - = help: consider pinning your async block and casting it to a trait object -note: associated function defined here - --> file:///home/.rustup/toolchains/1.82/lib/rustlib/src/rust/library/alloc/src/boxed.rs:255:12 - | -255 | pub fn new(x: T) -> Self { - | ^^^ - -error[E0277]: `{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}` cannot be unpinned - --> src/main.rs:48:24 - | -48 | trpl::join_all(futures).await; - | -------------- ^^^^^^^ the trait `Unpin` is not implemented for `{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}`, which is required by `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}>: Future` - | | - | required by a bound introduced by this call - | - = note: consider using the `pin!` macro - consider using `Box::pin` if you need to access the pinned value outside of the current scope - = note: required for `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}>` to implement `Future` -note: required by a bound in `join_all` - --> file:///home/.cargo/registry/src/index.crates.io-6f17d22bba15001f/futures-util-0.3.30/src/future/join_all.rs:105:14 - | -102 | pub fn join_all<I>(iter: I) -> JoinAll<I::Item> - | -------- required by a bound in this function -... -105 | I::Item: Future, - | ^^^^^^ required by this bound in `join_all` - -error[E0277]: `{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}` cannot be unpinned - --> src/main.rs:48:9 - | -48 | trpl::join_all(futures).await; - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ the trait `Unpin` is not implemented for `{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}`, which is required by `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}>: Future` - | - = note: consider using the `pin!` macro - consider using `Box::pin` if you need to access the pinned value outside of the current scope - = note: required for `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}>` to implement `Future` -note: required by a bound in `futures_util::future::join_all::JoinAll` - --> file:///home/.cargo/registry/src/index.crates.io-6f17d22bba15001f/futures-util-0.3.30/src/future/join_all.rs:29:8 - | -27 | pub struct JoinAll<F> - | ------- required by a bound in this struct -28 | where -29 | F: Future, - | ^^^^^^ required by this bound in `JoinAll` - -error[E0277]: `{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}` cannot be unpinned - --> src/main.rs:48:33 - | -48 | trpl::join_all(futures).await; - | ^^^^^ the trait `Unpin` is not implemented for `{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}`, which is required by `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}>: Future` - | - = note: consider using the `pin!` macro - consider using `Box::pin` if you need to access the pinned value outside of the current scope - = note: required for `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}>` to implement `Future` -note: required by a bound in `futures_util::future::join_all::JoinAll` - --> file:///home/.cargo/registry/src/index.crates.io-6f17d22bba15001f/futures-util-0.3.30/src/future/join_all.rs:29:8 - | -27 | pub struct JoinAll<F> - | ------- required by a bound in this struct -28 | where -29 | F: Future, - | ^^^^^^ required by this bound in `JoinAll` -``` - -That is a *lot* to digest, so let’s pull it apart. The first part of the message -tell us that the first async block (`src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10`) does not -implement the `Unpin` trait and suggests using `pin!` or `Box::pin` to resolve -it. Later in the chapter, we’ll dig into a few more details about `Pin` and -`Unpin`. For the moment, though, we can just follow the compiler’s advice to get -unstuck. In Listing 17-18, we start by updating the type annotation for -`futures`, with a `Pin` wrapping each `Box`. Second, we use `Box::pin` to pin -the futures themselves. - -src/main.rs - -``` - let futures: Vec<Pin<Box<dyn Future<Output = ()>>>> = - vec![Box::pin(tx1_fut), Box::pin(rx_fut), Box::pin(tx_fut)]; -``` - -Listing 17-18: Using `Pin` and `Box::pin` to make the `Vec` type check - -If we compile and run this, we finally get the output we hoped for: - -<!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant; -the changes are likely to be due to the threads running differently rather than -changes in the compiler --> - -``` -received 'hi' -received 'more' -received 'from' -received 'messages' -received 'the' -received 'for' -received 'future' -received 'you' -``` - -Phew! - -There’s a bit more to explore here. For one thing, using `Pin<Box<T>>` adds a -small amount of overhead from putting these futures on the heap with `Box`—and -we’re only doing that to get the types to line up. We don’t actually *need* the -heap allocation, after all: these futures are local to this particular function. -As noted before, `Pin` is itself a wrapper type, so we can get the benefit of -having a single type in the `Vec`—the original reason we reached for -`Box`—without doing a heap allocation. We can use `Pin` directly with each -future, using the `std::pin::pin` macro. - -However, we must still be explicit about the type of the pinned reference; -otherwise, Rust will still not know to interpret these as dynamic trait objects, -which is what we need them to be in the `Vec`. We therefore `pin!` each future -when we define it, and define `futures` as a `Vec` containing pinned mutable -references to the dynamic future type, as in Listing 17-19. - -src/main.rs - -``` - let tx1_fut = pin!(async move { - // --snip-- - }); - - let rx_fut = pin!(async { - // --snip-- - }); - - let tx_fut = pin!(async move { - // --snip-- - }); - - let futures: Vec<Pin<&mut dyn Future<Output = ()>>> = - vec![tx1_fut, rx_fut, tx_fut]; -``` - -Listing 17-19: Using `Pin` directly with the `pin!` macro to avoid unnecessary heap allocations - -We got this far by ignoring the fact that we might have different `Output` -types. For example, in Listing 17-20, the anonymous future for `a` implements -`Future<Output = u32>`, the anonymous future for `b` implements `Future<Output = &str>`, and the anonymous future for `c` implements `Future<Output = bool>`. - -src/main.rs - -``` - let a = async { 1u32 }; - let b = async { "Hello!" }; - let c = async { true }; - - let (a_result, b_result, c_result) = trpl::join!(a, b, c); - println!("{a_result}, {b_result}, {c_result}"); -``` - -Listing 17-20: Three futures with distinct types - -We can use `trpl::join!` to await them, because it allows us to pass in multiple -future types and produces a tuple of those types. We *cannot* use -`trpl::join_all`, because it requires all of the futures passed in to have the -same type. Remember, that error is what got us started on this adventure with -`Pin`! - -This is a fundamental tradeoff: we can either deal with a dynamic number of -futures with `join_all`, as long as they all have the same type, or we can deal -with a set number of futures with the `join` functions or the `join!` macro, -even if they have different types. This is the same scenario we’d face when -working with any other types in Rust. Futures are not special, even though we -have some nice syntax for working with them, and that’s a good thing. - -### Racing Futures - -When we “join” futures with the `join` family of functions and macros, we -require *all* of them to finish before we move on. Sometimes, though, we only -need *some* future from a set to finish before we move on—kind of similar to -racing one future against another. - -In Listing 17-21, we once again use `trpl::race` to run two futures, `slow` and -`fast`, against each other. - -src/main.rs - -``` - let slow = async { - println!("'slow' started."); - trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(100)).await; - println!("'slow' finished."); - }; - - let fast = async { - println!("'fast' started."); - trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(50)).await; - println!("'fast' finished."); - }; - - trpl::race(slow, fast).await; -``` - -Listing 17-21: Using `race` to get the result of whichever future finishes first +<!-- Old headings. Do not remove or links may break. --> -Each future prints a message when it starts running, pauses for some amount of -time by calling and awaiting `sleep`, and then prints another message when it -finishes. Then we pass both `slow` and `fast` to `trpl::race` and wait for one -of them to finish. (The outcome here isn’t too surprising: `fast` wins.) Unlike -when we used `race` back in “Our First Async Program”, we just ignore the `Either` instance it returns here, because all of -the interesting behavior happens in the body of the async blocks. +<a id="yielding"></a> -Notice that if you flip the order of the arguments to `race`, the order of the -“started” messages changes, even though the `fast` future always completes -first. That’s because the implementation of this particular `race` function is -not fair. It always runs the futures passed in as arguments in the order in -which they’re passed. Other implementations *are* fair and will randomly choose -which future to poll first. Regardless of whether the implementation of race -we’re using is fair, though, *one* of the futures will run up to the first -`await` in its body before another task can start. +### Yielding Control to the Runtime -Recall from Our First Async Program that at each -await point, Rust gives a runtime a chance to pause the task and switch to -another one if the future being awaited isn’t ready. The inverse is also true: -Rust *only* pauses async blocks and hands control back to a runtime at an await -point. Everything between await points is synchronous. +Recall from the “Our First Async Program” +section that at each await point, Rust gives a runtime a chance to pause the +task and switch to another one if the future being awaited isn’t ready. The +inverse is also true: Rust *only* pauses async blocks and hands control back to +a runtime at an await point. Everything between await points is synchronous. That means if you do a bunch of work in an async block without an await point, that future will block any other futures from making progress. You may sometimes @@ -1555,20 +1173,8 @@ setup or long-running work, or if you have a future that will keep doing some particular task indefinitely, you’ll need to think about when and where to hand control back to the runtime. -By the same token, if you have long-running blocking operations, async can be a -useful tool for providing ways for different parts of the program to relate to -each other. - -But *how* would you hand control back to the runtime in those cases? - -<!-- Old headings. Do not remove or links may break. --> - -<a id="yielding"></a> - -### Yielding Control to the Runtime - -Let’s simulate a long-running operation. Listing 17-22 introduces a `slow` -function. +Let’s simulate a long-running operation to illustrate the starvation problem, +then explore how to solve it. Listing 17-14 introduces a `slow` function. src/main.rs @@ -1579,14 +1185,14 @@ fn slow(name: &str, ms: u64) { } ``` -Listing 17-22: Using `thread::sleep` to simulate slow operations +Listing 17-14: Using `thread::sleep` to simulate slow operations This code uses `std::thread::sleep` instead of `trpl::sleep` so that calling -`slow` will block the current thread for some number of milliseconds. We can use -`slow` to stand in for real-world operations that are both long-running and +`slow` will block the current thread for some number of milliseconds. We can +use `slow` to stand in for real-world operations that are both long-running and blocking. -In Listing 17-23, we use `slow` to emulate doing this kind of CPU-bound work in +In Listing 17-15, we use `slow` to emulate doing this kind of CPU-bound work in a pair of futures. src/main.rs @@ -1611,16 +1217,16 @@ src/main.rs println!("'b' finished."); }; - trpl::race(a, b).await; + trpl::select(a, b).await; ``` -Listing 17-23: Using `thread::sleep` to simulate slow operations +Listing 17-15: Calling `slow` to simulate running slow operations -To begin, each future only hands control back to the runtime *after* carrying -out a bunch of slow operations. If you run this code, you will see this output: +Each future hands control back to the runtime only *after* carrying out a bunch +of slow operations. If you run this code, you will see this output: <!-- manual-regeneration -cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-23/ +cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-15/ cargo run copy just the output --> @@ -1638,19 +1244,20 @@ copy just the output 'a' finished. ``` -As with our earlier example, `race` still finishes as soon as `a` is done. -There’s no interleaving between the two futures, though. The `a` future does all +As with Listing 17-5 where we used `trpl::select` to race futures fetching two +URLs, `select` still finishes as soon as `a` is done. There’s no interleaving +between the calls to `slow` in the two futures, though. The `a` future does all of its work until the `trpl::sleep` call is awaited, then the `b` future does -all of its work until its own `trpl::sleep` call is awaited, and finally the `a` -future completes. To allow both futures to make progress between their slow +all of its work until its own `trpl::sleep` call is awaited, and finally the +`a` future completes. To allow both futures to make progress between their slow tasks, we need await points so we can hand control back to the runtime. That means we need something we can await! -We can already see this kind of handoff happening in Listing 17-23: if we +We can already see this kind of handoff happening in Listing 17-15: if we removed the `trpl::sleep` at the end of the `a` future, it would complete -without the `b` future running *at all*. Let’s try using the `sleep` function as -a starting point for letting operations switch off making progress, as shown in -Listing 17-24. +without the `b` future running *at all*. Let’s try using the `trpl::sleep` +function as a starting point for letting operations switch off making progress, +as shown in Listing 17-16. src/main.rs @@ -1676,19 +1283,19 @@ src/main.rs trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; slow("b", 15); trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; - slow("b", 35); + slow("b", 350); trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; println!("'b' finished."); }; ``` -Listing 17-24: Using `sleep` to let operations switch off making progress +Listing 17-16: Using `trpl::sleep` to let operations switch off making progress -In Listing 17-24, we add `trpl::sleep` calls with await points between each call -to `slow`. Now the two futures’ work is interleaved: +We’ve added `trpl::sleep` calls with await points between each call to `slow`. +Now the two futures’ work is interleaved: <!-- manual-regeneration -cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-24 +cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-16 cargo run copy just the output --> @@ -1713,8 +1320,8 @@ whatever way makes the most sense to us. We don’t really want to *sleep* here, though: we want to make progress as fast as we can. We just need to hand back control to the runtime. We can do that -directly, using the `yield_now` function. In Listing 17-25, we replace all those -`sleep` calls with `yield_now`. +directly, using the `trpl::yield_now` function. In Listing 17-17, we replace +all those `trpl::sleep` calls with `trpl::yield_now`. src/main.rs @@ -1738,13 +1345,13 @@ src/main.rs trpl::yield_now().await; slow("b", 15); trpl::yield_now().await; - slow("b", 35); + slow("b", 350); trpl::yield_now().await; println!("'b' finished."); }; ``` -Listing 17-25: Using `yield_now` to let operations switch off making progress +Listing 17-17: Using `yield_now` to let operations switch off making progress This code is both clearer about the actual intent and can be significantly faster than using `sleep`, because timers such as the one used by `sleep` often @@ -1753,55 +1360,12 @@ for example, will always sleep for at least a millisecond, even if we pass it a `Duration` of one nanosecond. Again, modern computers are *fast*: they can do a lot in one millisecond! -You can see this for yourself by setting up a little benchmark, such as the one -in Listing 17-26. (This isn’t an especially rigorous way to do performance -testing, but it suffices to show the difference here.) - -src/main.rs - -``` - let one_ns = Duration::from_nanos(1); - let start = Instant::now(); - async { - for _ in 1..1000 { - trpl::sleep(one_ns).await; - } - } - .await; - let time = Instant::now() - start; - println!( - "'sleep' version finished after {} seconds.", - time.as_secs_f32() - ); - - let start = Instant::now(); - async { - for _ in 1..1000 { - trpl::yield_now().await; - } - } - .await; - let time = Instant::now() - start; - println!( - "'yield' version finished after {} seconds.", - time.as_secs_f32() - ); -``` - -Listing 17-26: Comparing the performance of `sleep` and `yield_now` - -Here, we skip all the status printing, pass a one-nanosecond `Duration` to -`trpl::sleep`, and let each future run by itself, with no switching between the -futures. Then we run for 1,000 iterations and see how long the future using -`trpl::sleep` takes compared to the future using `trpl::yield_now`. - -The version with `yield_now` is *way* faster! - This means that async can be useful even for compute-bound tasks, depending on what else your program is doing, because it provides a useful tool for -structuring the relationships between different parts of the program. This is a -form of *cooperative multitasking*, where each future has the power to determine -when it hands over control via await points. Each future therefore also has the +structuring the relationships between different parts of the program (but at a +cost of the overhead of the async state machine). This is a form of +*cooperative multitasking*, where each future has the power to determine when +it hands over control via await points. Each future therefore also has the responsibility to avoid blocking for too long. In some Rust-based embedded operating systems, this is the *only* kind of multitasking! @@ -1821,18 +1385,18 @@ build a `timeout` function with async building blocks we already have. When we’re done, the result will be another building block we could use to create still more async abstractions. -Listing 17-27 shows how we would expect this `timeout` to work with a slow +Listing 17-18 shows how we would expect this `timeout` to work with a slow future. src/main.rs ``` let slow = async { - trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(100)).await; - "I finished!" + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)).await; + "Finally finished" }; - match timeout(slow, Duration::from_millis(10)).await { + match timeout(slow, Duration::from_secs(2)).await { Ok(message) => println!("Succeeded with '{message}'"), Err(duration) => { println!("Failed after {} seconds", duration.as_secs()) @@ -1840,7 +1404,7 @@ src/main.rs } ``` -Listing 17-27: Using our imagined `timeout` to run a slow operation with a time limit +Listing 17-18: Using our imagined `timeout` to run a slow operation with a time limit Let’s implement this! To begin, let’s think about the API for `timeout`: @@ -1854,7 +1418,7 @@ Let’s implement this! To begin, let’s think about the API for `timeout`: elapses first, the `Result` will be `Err` with the duration that the timeout waited for. -Listing 17-28 shows this declaration. +Listing 17-19 shows this declaration. <!-- This is not tested because it intentionally does not compile. --> @@ -1869,21 +1433,15 @@ async fn timeout<F: Future>( } ``` -Listing 17-28: Defining the signature of `timeout` +Listing 17-19: Defining the signature of `timeout` That satisfies our goals for the types. Now let’s think about the *behavior* we need: we want to race the future passed in against the duration. We can use -`trpl::sleep` to make a timer future from the duration, and use `trpl::race` to -run that timer with the future the caller passes in. - -We also know that `race` is not fair, polling arguments in the order in which -they are passed. Thus, we pass `future_to_try` to `race` first so it gets a -chance to complete even if `max_time` is a very short duration. If -`future_to_try` finishes first, `race` will return `Left` with the output from -`future_to_try`. If `timer` finishes first, `race` will return `Right` with the -timer’s output of `()`. +`trpl::sleep` to make a timer future from the duration, and use `trpl::select` +to run that timer with the future the caller passes in. -In Listing 17-29, we match on the result of awaiting `trpl::race`. +In Listing 17-20, we implement `timeout` by matching on the result of awaiting +`trpl::select`. src/main.rs @@ -1892,33 +1450,26 @@ use trpl::Either; // --snip-- -fn main() { - trpl::run(async { - let slow = async { - trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)).await; - "Finally finished" - }; - - match timeout(slow, Duration::from_secs(2)).await { - Ok(message) => println!("Succeeded with '{message}'"), - Err(duration) => { - println!("Failed after {} seconds", duration.as_secs()) - } - } - }); -} - async fn timeout<F: Future>( future_to_try: F, max_time: Duration, ) -> Result<F::Output, Duration> { - match trpl::race(future_to_try, trpl::sleep(max_time)).await { + match trpl::select(future_to_try, trpl::sleep(max_time)).await { Either::Left(output) => Ok(output), Either::Right(_) => Err(max_time), } +} ``` -Listing 17-29: Defining `timeout` with `race` and `sleep` +Listing 17-20: Defining `timeout` with `select` and `sleep` + +The implementation of `trpl::select` is not fair: it always polls arguments in +the order in which they are passed (other `select` implementations will +randomly choose which argument to poll first). Thus, we pass `future_to_try` to +`select` first so it gets a chance to complete even if `max_time` is a very +short duration. If `future_to_try` finishes first, `select` will return `Left` +with the output from `future_to_try`. If `timer` finishes first, `select` will +return `Right` with the timer’s output of `()`. If the `future_to_try` succeeds and we get a `Left(output)`, we return `Ok(output)`. If the sleep timer elapses instead and we get a `Right(())`, we @@ -1932,58 +1483,52 @@ Failed after 2 seconds ``` Because futures compose with other futures, you can build really powerful tools -using smaller async building blocks. For example, you can use this same approach -to combine timeouts with retries, and in turn use those with operations such as -network calls (one of the examples from the beginning of the chapter). +using smaller async building blocks. For example, you can use this same +approach to combine timeouts with retries, and in turn use those with +operations such as network calls (such as those in Listing 17-5). In practice, you’ll usually work directly with `async` and `await`, and -secondarily with functions and macros such as `join`, `join_all`, `race`, and so -on. You’ll only need to reach for `pin` now and again to use futures with those -APIs. - -We’ve now seen a number of ways to work with multiple futures at the same -time. Up next, we’ll look at how we can work with multiple futures in a -sequence over time with *streams*. Here are a couple more things you might want -to consider first, though: - -* We used a `Vec` with `join_all` to wait for all of the futures in some group - to finish. How could you use a `Vec` to process a group of futures in - sequence instead? What are the tradeoffs of doing that? +secondarily with functions such as `select` and macros such as the `join!` +macro to control how the outermost futures are executed. -* Take a look at the `futures::stream::FuturesUnordered` type from the `futures` - crate. How would using it be different from using a `Vec`? (Don’t worry about - the fact that it’s from the `stream` part of the crate; it works just fine - with any collection of futures.) - -## Streams: Futures in Sequence +We’ve now seen a number of ways to work with multiple futures at the same time. +Up next, we’ll look at how we can work with multiple futures in a sequence over +time with *streams*. <!-- Old headings. Do not remove or links may break. --> <a id="streams"></a> -So far in this chapter, we’ve mostly stuck to individual futures. The one big -exception was the async channel we used. Recall how we used the receiver for our -async channel earlier in this chapter in the “Message -Passing” section. The async `recv` method -produces a sequence of items over time. This is an instance of a much more -general pattern known as a *stream*. - -We saw a sequence of items back in Chapter 13, when we looked at the `Iterator` -trait in The Iterator Trait and the `next` Method section, but there are two differences between iterators and the async -channel receiver. The first difference is time: iterators are synchronous, while -the channel receiver is asynchronous. The second is the API. When working -directly with `Iterator`, we call its synchronous `next` method. With the -`trpl::Receiver` stream in particular, we called an asynchronous `recv` method -instead. Otherwise, these APIs otherwise feel very similar, and that similarity -isn’t a coincidence. A stream is like an asynchronous form of iteration. Whereas -the `trpl::Receiver` specifically waits to receive messages, though, the -general-purpose stream API is much broader: it provides the next item the -way `Iterator` does, but asynchronously. +## Streams: Futures in Sequence + +Recall how we used the receiver for our async channel earlier in this chapter +in the “Message Passing” section. The async +`recv` method produces a sequence of items over time. This is an instance of a +much more general pattern known as a *stream*. Many concepts are naturally +represented as streams: items becoming available in a queue, chunks of data +being pulled incrementally from the filesystem when the full data set is too +large for the computer’s memory, or data arriving over the network over time. +Because streams are futures, we can use them with any other kind of future and +combine them in interesting ways. For example, we can batch up events to avoid +triggering too many network calls, set timeouts on sequences of long-running +operations, or throttle user interface events to avoid doing needless work. + +We saw a sequence of items back in Chapter 13, when we looked at the Iterator +trait in “The Iterator Trait and the `next` Method” section, but there are two differences between iterators and the +async channel receiver. The first difference is time: iterators are +synchronous, while the channel receiver is asynchronous. The second difference +is the API. When working directly with `Iterator`, we call its synchronous +`next` method. With the `trpl::Receiver` stream in particular, we called an +asynchronous `recv` method instead. Otherwise, these APIs feel very similar, +and that similarity isn’t a coincidence. A stream is like an asynchronous form +of iteration. Whereas the `trpl::Receiver` specifically waits to receive +messages, though, the general-purpose stream API is much broader: it provides +the next item the way `Iterator` does, but asynchronously. The similarity between iterators and streams in Rust means we can actually create a stream from any iterator. As with an iterator, we can work with a stream by calling its `next` method and then awaiting the output, as in Listing -17-30. +17-21, which won’t compile yet. src/main.rs @@ -1997,30 +1542,29 @@ src/main.rs } ``` -Listing 17-30: Creating a stream from an iterator and printing its values +Listing 17-21: Creating a stream from an iterator and printing its values -We start with an array of numbers, which we convert to an iterator and then call -`map` on to double all the values. Then we convert the iterator into a stream -using the `trpl::stream_from_iter` function. Next, we loop over the items in the -stream as they arrive with the `while let` loop. +We start with an array of numbers, which we convert to an iterator and then +call `map` on to double all the values. Then we convert the iterator into a +stream using the `trpl::stream_from_iter` function. Next, we loop over the +items in the stream as they arrive with the `while let` loop. -Unfortunately, when we try to run the code, it doesn’t compile, but instead it reports that there’s no `next` method available: +Unfortunately, when we try to run the code, it doesn’t compile but instead +reports that there’s no `next` method available: <!-- manual-regeneration -cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-30 +cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-21 cargo build copy only the error output --> ``` -error[E0599]: no method named `next` found for struct `Iter` in the current scope +error[E0599]: no method named `next` found for struct `tokio_stream::iter::Iter` in the current scope --> src/main.rs:10:40 | 10 | while let Some(value) = stream.next().await { | ^^^^ | - = note: the full type name has been written to 'file:///projects/async_await/target/debug/deps/async_await-9de943556a6001b8.long-type-1281356139287206597.txt' - = note: consider using `--verbose` to print the full type name to the console = help: items from traits can only be used if the trait is in scope help: the following traits which provide `next` are implemented but not in scope; perhaps you want to import one of them | @@ -2040,21 +1584,19 @@ help: there is a method `try_next` with a similar name As this output explains, the reason for the compiler error is that we need the right trait in scope to be able to use the `next` method. Given our discussion -so far, you might reasonably expect that trait to be `Stream`, but it’s actually -`StreamExt`. Short for *extension*, `Ext` is a common pattern in the +so far, you might reasonably expect that trait to be `Stream`, but it’s +actually `StreamExt`. Short for *extension*, `Ext` is a common pattern in the Rust community for extending one trait with another. -We’ll explain the `Stream` and `StreamExt` traits in a bit more detail at the -end of the chapter, but for now all you need to know is that the `Stream` trait -defines a low-level interface that effectively combines the `Iterator` and -`Future` traits. `StreamExt` supplies a higher-level set of APIs on top of -`Stream`, including the `next` method as well as other utility methods similar -to those provided by the `Iterator` trait. `Stream` and `StreamExt` are not yet -part of Rust’s standard library, but most ecosystem crates use the same -definition. +The `Stream` trait defines a low-level interface that effectively combines the +`Iterator` and `Future` traits. `StreamExt` supplies a higher-level set of APIs +on top of `Stream`, including the `next` method as well as other utility +methods similar to those provided by the `Iterator` trait. `Stream` and +`StreamExt` are not yet part of Rust’s standard library, but most ecosystem +crates use similar definitions. -The fix to the compiler error is to add a `use` statement for `trpl::StreamExt`, -as in Listing 17-31. +The fix to the compiler error is to add a `use` statement for +`trpl::StreamExt`, as in Listing 17-22. src/main.rs @@ -2062,503 +1604,31 @@ src/main.rs use trpl::StreamExt; fn main() { - trpl::run(async { + trpl::block_on(async { let values = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]; - let iter = values.iter().map(|n| n * 2); - let mut stream = trpl::stream_from_iter(iter); - - while let Some(value) = stream.next().await { - println!("The value was: {value}"); - } - }); -} + // --snip-- ``` -Listing 17-31: Successfully using an iterator as the basis for a stream +Listing 17-22: Successfully using an iterator as the basis for a stream With all those pieces put together, this code works the way we want! What’s more, now that we have `StreamExt` in scope, we can use all of its utility -methods, just as with iterators. For example, in Listing 17-32, we use the -`filter` method to filter out everything but multiples of three and five. - -src/main.rs - -``` -use trpl::StreamExt; - -fn main() { - trpl::run(async { - let values = 1..101; - let iter = values.map(|n| n * 2); - let stream = trpl::stream_from_iter(iter); - - let mut filtered = - stream.filter(|value| value % 3 == 0 || value % 5 == 0); - - while let Some(value) = filtered.next().await { - println!("The value was: {value}"); - } - }); -} -``` - -Listing 17-32: Filtering a stream with the `StreamExt::filter` method - -Of course, this isn’t very interesting, since we could do the same with normal -iterators and without any async at all. Let’s look at what -we can do that *is* unique to streams. - -### Composing Streams - -Many concepts are naturally represented as streams: items becoming available in -a queue, chunks of data being pulled incrementally from the filesystem when the -full data set is too large for the computer’s , or data arriving over the -network over time. Because streams are futures, we can use them with any other -kind of future and combine them in interesting ways. For example, we can batch -up events to avoid triggering too many network calls, set timeouts on sequences -of long-running operations, or throttle user interface events to avoid doing -needless work. - -Let’s start by building a little stream of messages as a stand-in for a stream -of data we might see from a WebSocket or another real-time communication -protocol, as shown in Listing 17-33. - -src/main.rs - -``` -use trpl::{ReceiverStream, Stream, StreamExt}; - -fn main() { - trpl::run(async { - let mut messages = get_messages(); - - while let Some(message) = messages.next().await { - println!("{message}"); - } - }); -} - -fn get_messages() -> impl Stream<Item = String> { - let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); - - let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; - for message in messages { - tx.send(format!("Message: '{message}'")).unwrap(); - } - - ReceiverStream::new(rx) -} -``` - -Listing 17-33: Using the `rx` receiver as a `ReceiverStream` - -First, we create a function called `get_messages` that returns `impl Stream<Item = String>`. For its implementation, we create an async channel, loop over the -first 10 letters of the English alphabet, and send them across the channel. - -We also use a new type: `ReceiverStream`, which converts the `rx` receiver from -the `trpl::channel` into a `Stream` with a `next` method. Back in `main`, we use -a `while let` loop to print all the messages from the stream. - -When we run this code, we get exactly the results we would expect: - -<!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant; -the changes are likely to be due to the threads running differently rather than -changes in the compiler --> - -``` -Message: 'a' -Message: 'b' -Message: 'c' -Message: 'd' -Message: 'e' -Message: 'f' -Message: 'g' -Message: 'h' -Message: 'i' -Message: 'j' -``` - -Again, we could do this with the regular `Receiver` API or even the regular -`Iterator` API, though, so let’s add a feature that requires streams: adding a -timeout that applies to every item in the stream, and a delay on the items we -emit, as shown in Listing 17-34. - -src/main.rs - -``` -use std::{pin::pin, time::Duration}; -use trpl::{ReceiverStream, Stream, StreamExt}; - -fn main() { - trpl::run(async { - let mut messages = - pin!(get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200))); - - while let Some(result) = messages.next().await { - match result { - Ok(message) => println!("{message}"), - Err(reason) => eprintln!("Problem: {reason:?}"), - } - } - }) -} -``` - -Listing 17-34: Using the `StreamExt::timeout` method to set a time limit on the items in a stream - -We start by adding a timeout to the stream with the `timeout` method, which -comes from the `StreamExt` trait. Then we update the body of the `while let` -loop, because the stream now returns a `Result`. The `Ok` variant indicates a -message arrived in time; the `Err` variant indicates that the timeout elapsed -before any message arrived. We `match` on that result and either print the -message when we receive it successfully or print a notice about the timeout. -Finally, notice that we pin the messages after applying the timeout to them, -because the timeout helper produces a stream that needs to be pinned to be -polled. - -However, because there are no delays between messages, this timeout does not -change the behavior of the program. Let’s add a variable delay to the messages -we send, as shown in Listing 17-35. - -src/main.rs - -``` -fn get_messages() -> impl Stream<Item = String> { - let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); - - trpl::spawn_task(async move { - let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; - for (index, message) in messages.into_iter().enumerate() { - let time_to_sleep = if index % 2 == 0 { 100 } else { 300 }; - trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(time_to_sleep)).await; - - tx.send(format!("Message: '{message}'")).unwrap(); - } - }); - - ReceiverStream::new(rx) -} -``` - -Listing 17-35: Sending messages through `tx` with an async delay without making `get_messages` an async function - -In `get_messages`, we use the `enumerate` iterator method with the `messages` -array so that we can get the index of each item we’re sending along with the -item itself. Then we apply a 100-millisecond delay to even-index items and a -300-millisecond delay to odd-index items to simulate the different delays we -might see from a stream of messages in the real world. Because our timeout is -for 200 milliseconds, this should affect half of the messages. - -To sleep between messages in the `get_messages` function without blocking, we -need to use async. However, we can’t make `get_messages` itself into an async -function, because then we’d return a `Future<Output = Stream<Item = String>>` -instead of a `Stream<Item = String>>`. The caller would have to await -`get_messages` itself to get access to the stream. But remember: everything in a -given future happens linearly; concurrency happens *between* futures. Awaiting -`get_messages` would require it to send all the messages, including the sleep -delay between each message, before returning the receiver stream. As a result, -the timeout would be useless. There would be no delays in the stream itself; -they would all happen before the stream was even available. - -Instead, we leave `get_messages` as a regular function that returns a stream, -and we spawn a task to handle the async `sleep` calls. - -> Note: Calling `spawn_task` in this way works because we already set up our -> runtime; had we not, it would cause a panic. Other implementations choose -> different tradeoffs: they might spawn a new runtime and avoid the panic but -> end up with a bit of extra overhead, or they may simply not provide a -> standalone way to spawn tasks without reference to a runtime. Make sure you -> know what tradeoff your runtime has chosen and write your code accordingly! - -Now our code has a much more interesting result. Between every other pair of -messages, a `Problem: Elapsed(())` error. - -<!-- manual-regeneration -cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-35 -cargo run -copy only the program output, *not* the compiler output ---> - -``` -Message: 'a' -Problem: Elapsed(()) -Message: 'b' -Message: 'c' -Problem: Elapsed(()) -Message: 'd' -Message: 'e' -Problem: Elapsed(()) -Message: 'f' -Message: 'g' -Problem: Elapsed(()) -Message: 'h' -Message: 'i' -Problem: Elapsed(()) -Message: 'j' -``` - -The timeout doesn’t prevent the messages from arriving in the end. We still get -all of the original messages, because our channel is *unbounded*: it can hold as -many messages as we can fit in memory. If the message doesn’t arrive before the -timeout, our stream handler will account for that, but when it polls the stream -again, the message may now have arrived. - -You can get different behavior if needed by using other kinds of channels or -other kinds of streams more generally. Let’s see one of those in practice by -combining a stream of time intervals with this stream of messages. - -### Merging Streams - -First, let’s create another stream, which will emit an item every millisecond if -we let it run directly. For simplicity, we can use the `sleep` function to send -a message on a delay and combine it with the same approach we used in -`get_messages` of creating a stream from a channel. The difference is that this -time, we’re going to send back the count of intervals that have elapsed, so the -return type will be `impl Stream<Item = u32>`, and we can call the function -`get_intervals` (see Listing 17-36). - -src/main.rs - -``` -fn get_intervals() -> impl Stream<Item = u32> { - let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); - - trpl::spawn_task(async move { - let mut count = 0; - loop { - trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)).await; - count += 1; - tx.send(count).unwrap(); - } - }); - - ReceiverStream::new(rx) -} -``` - -Listing 17-36: Creating a stream with a counter that will be emitted once every millisecond - -We start by defining a `count` in the task. (We could define it outside the -task, too, but it’s clearer to limit the scope of any given variable.) Then we -create an infinite loop. Each iteration of the loop asynchronously sleeps for -one millisecond, increments the count, and then sends it over the channel. -Because this is all wrapped in the task created by `spawn_task`, all of -it—including the infinite loop—will get cleaned up along with the runtime. - -This kind of infinite loop, which ends only when the whole runtime gets torn -down, is fairly common in async Rust: many programs need to keep running -indefinitely. With async, this doesn’t block anything else, as long as there is -at least one await point in each iteration through the loop. - -Now, back in our main function’s async block, we can attempt to merge the -`messages` and `intervals` streams, as shown in Listing 17-37. - -src/main.rs - -``` - let messages = get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200)); - let intervals = get_intervals(); - let merged = messages.merge(intervals); -``` - -Listing 17-37: Attempting to merge the `messages` and `intervals` streams - -We start by calling `get_intervals`. Then we merge the `messages` and -`intervals` streams with the `merge` method, which combines multiple streams -into one stream that produces items from any of the source streams as soon as -the items are available, without imposing any particular ordering. Finally, we -loop over that combined stream instead of over `messages`. - -At this point, neither `messages` nor `intervals` needs to be pinned or mutable, -because both will be combined into the single `merged` stream. However, this -call to `merge` doesn’t compile! (Neither does the `next` call in the `while let` loop, but we’ll come back to that.) This is because the two streams have -different types. The `messages` stream has the type `Timeout<impl Stream<Item = String>>`, where `Timeout` is the type that implements `Stream` for a `timeout` -call. The `intervals` stream has the type `impl Stream<Item = u32>`. To merge -these two streams, we need to transform one of them to match the other. We’ll -rework the intervals stream, because messages is already in the basic format we -want and has to handle timeout errors (see Listing 17-38). - -<!-- We cannot directly test this one, because it never stops. --> - -src/main.rs - -``` - let messages = get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200)); - let intervals = get_intervals() - .map(|count| format!("Interval: {count}")) - .timeout(Duration::from_secs(10)); - let merged = messages.merge(intervals); - let mut stream = pin!(merged); -``` - -Listing 17-38: Aligning the type of the the `intervals` stream with the type of the `messages` stream - -First, we can use the `map` helper method to transform the `intervals` into a -string. Second, we need to match the `Timeout` from `messages`. Because we don’t -actually *want* a timeout for `intervals`, though, we can just create a timeout -which is longer than the other durations we are using. Here, we create a -10-second timeout with `Duration::from_secs(10)`. Finally, we need to make -`stream` mutable, so that the `while let` loop’s `next` calls can iterate -through the stream, and pin it so that it’s safe to do so. That gets us *almost* -to where we need to be. Everything type checks. If you run this, though, there -will be two problems. First, it will never stop! You’ll need to stop it with -<span class="keystroke">ctrl-c</span>. Second, the messages from the English -alphabet will be buried in the midst of all the interval counter messages: - -<!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant; -the changes are likely to be due to the tasks running differently rather than -changes in the compiler --> - -``` ---snip-- -Interval: 38 -Interval: 39 -Interval: 40 -Message: 'a' -Interval: 41 -Interval: 42 -Interval: 43 ---snip-- -``` - -Listing 17-39 shows one way to solve these last two problems. - -src/main.rs - -``` - let messages = get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200)); - let intervals = get_intervals() - .map(|count| format!("Interval: {count}")) - .throttle(Duration::from_millis(100)) - .timeout(Duration::from_secs(10)); - let merged = messages.merge(intervals).take(20); - let mut stream = pin!(merged); -``` - -Listing 17-39: Using `throttle` and `take` to manage the merged streams - -First, we use the `throttle` method on the `intervals` stream so that it doesn’t -overwhelm the `messages` stream. *Throttling* is a way of limiting the rate at -which a function will be called—or, in this case, how often the stream will be -polled. Once every 100 milliseconds should do, because that’s roughly how often -our messages arrive. - -To limit the number of items we will accept from a stream, we apply the `take` -method to the `merged` stream, because we want to limit the final output, not -just one stream or the other. - -Now when we run the program, it stops after pulling 20 items from the stream, -and the intervals don’t overwhelm the messages. We also don’t get `Interval: 100` or `Interval: 200` or so on, but instead get `Interval: 1`, `Interval: 2`, -and so on—even though we have a source stream that *can* produce an event every -millisecond. That’s because the `throttle` call produces a new stream that wraps -the original stream so that the original stream gets polled only at the throttle -rate, not its own “native” rate. We don’t have a bunch of unhandled interval -messages we’re choosing to ignore. Instead, we never produce those interval -messages in the first place! This is the inherent “laziness” of Rust’s futures -at work again, allowing us to choose our performance characteristics. - -<!-- manual-regeneration -cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-39 -cargo run -copy and paste only the program output ---> - -``` -Interval: 1 -Message: 'a' -Interval: 2 -Interval: 3 -Problem: Elapsed(()) -Interval: 4 -Message: 'b' -Interval: 5 -Message: 'c' -Interval: 6 -Interval: 7 -Problem: Elapsed(()) -Interval: 8 -Message: 'd' -Interval: 9 -Message: 'e' -Interval: 10 -Interval: 11 -Problem: Elapsed(()) -Interval: 12 -``` - -There’s one last thing we need to handle: errors! With both of these -channel-based streams, the `send` calls could fail when the other side of the -channel closes—and that’s just a matter of how the runtime executes the futures -that make up the stream. Up until now, we’ve ignored this possibility by calling -`unwrap`, but in a well-behaved app, we should explicitly handle the error, at -minimum by ending the loop so we don’t try to send any more messages. Listing -17-40 shows a simple error strategy: print the issue and then `break` from the -loops. - - -``` -fn get_messages() -> impl Stream<Item = String> { - let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); - - trpl::spawn_task(async move { - let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; - - for (index, message) in messages.into_iter().enumerate() { - let time_to_sleep = if index % 2 == 0 { 100 } else { 300 }; - trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(time_to_sleep)).await; - - if let Err(send_error) = tx.send(format!("Message: '{message}'")) { - eprintln!("Cannot send message '{message}': {send_error}"); - break; - } - } - }); - - ReceiverStream::new(rx) -} - -fn get_intervals() -> impl Stream<Item = u32> { - let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); - - trpl::spawn_task(async move { - let mut count = 0; - loop { - trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)).await; - count += 1; - - if let Err(send_error) = tx.send(count) { - eprintln!("Could not send interval {count}: {send_error}"); - break; - }; - } - }); - - ReceiverStream::new(rx) -} -``` - -Listing 17-40: Handling errors and shutting down the loops - -As usual, the correct way to handle a message send error will vary; just make -sure you have a strategy. - -Now that we’ve seen a bunch of async in practice, let’s take a step back and dig -into a few of the details of how `Future`, `Stream`, and the other key traits -Rust uses to make async work. - -## A Closer Look at the Traits for Async +methods, just as with iterators. <!-- Old headings. Do not remove or links may break. --> <a id="digging-into-the-traits-for-async"></a> -Throughout the chapter, we’ve used the `Future`, `Pin`, `Unpin`, `Stream`, and -`StreamExt` traits in various ways. So far, though, we’ve avoided getting too -far into the details of how they work or how they fit together, which is fine -most of the time for your day-to-day Rust work. Sometimes, though, you’ll -encounter situations where you’ll need to understand a few more of these -details. In this section, we’ll dig in just enough to help in those scenarios, -still leaving the *really* deep dive for other documentation. +## A Closer Look at the Traits for Async + +Throughout the chapter, we’ve used the `Future`, `Stream`, and `StreamExt` +traits in various ways. So far, though, we’ve avoided getting too far into the +details of how they work or how they fit together, which is fine most of the +time for your day-to-day Rust work. Sometimes, though, you’ll encounter +situations where you’ll need to understand a few more of these traits’ details, +along with the `Pin` type and the `Unpin` trait. In this section, we’ll dig in +just enough to help in those scenarios, still leaving the *really* deep dive +for other documentation. <!-- Old headings. Do not remove or links may break. --> @@ -2585,28 +1655,28 @@ haven’t seen before, so let’s walk through the definition piece by piece. First, `Future`’s associated type `Output` says what the future resolves to. This is analogous to the `Item` associated type for the `Iterator` trait. -Second, `Future` also has the `poll` method, which takes a special `Pin` -reference for its `self` parameter and a mutable reference to a `Context` type, -and returns a `Poll<Self::Output>`. We’ll talk more about `Pin` and -`Context` in a moment. For now, let’s focus on what the method returns, -the `Poll` type: +Second, `Future` has the `poll` method, which takes a special `Pin` reference +for its `self` parameter and a mutable reference to a `Context` type, and +returns a `Poll<Self::Output>`. We’ll talk more about `Pin` and `Context` in a +moment. For now, let’s focus on what the method returns, the `Poll` type: ``` -enum Poll<T> { +pub enum Poll<T> { Ready(T), Pending, } ``` This `Poll` type is similar to an `Option`. It has one variant that has a value, -`Ready(T)`, and one which does not, `Pending`. `Poll` means something quite +`Ready(T)`, and one that does not, `Pending`. `Poll` means something quite different from `Option`, though! The `Pending` variant indicates that the future still has work to do, so the caller will need to check again later. The `Ready` -variant indicates that the future has finished its work and the `T` value is +variant indicates that the `Future` has finished its work and the `T` value is available. -> Note: With most futures, the caller should not call `poll` again after the -> future has returned `Ready`. Many futures will panic if polled again after +> Note: It’s rare to need to call `poll` directly, but if you do need to, keep +> in mind that with most futures, the caller should not call `poll` again after +> the future has returned `Ready`. Many futures will panic if polled again after > becoming ready. Futures that are safe to poll again will say so explicitly in > their documentation. This is similar to how `Iterator::next` behaves. @@ -2647,20 +1717,22 @@ loop { ``` If Rust compiled it to exactly that code, though, every `await` would be -blocking—exactly the opposite of what we were going for! Instead, Rust makes -sure that the loop can hand off control to something that can pause work on this +blocking—exactly the opposite of what we were going for! Instead, Rust ensures +that the loop can hand off control to something that can pause work on this future to work on other futures and then check this one again later. As we’ve seen, that something is an async runtime, and this scheduling and coordination work is one of its main jobs. -Earlier in the chapter, we described waiting on `rx.recv`. The `recv` call -returns a future, and awaiting the future polls it. We noted that a runtime will -pause the future until it’s ready with either `Some(message)` or `None` when the -channel closes. With our deeper understanding of the `Future` trait, and -specifically `Future::poll`, we can see how that works. The runtime knows the -future isn’t ready when it returns `Poll::Pending`. Conversely, the runtime -knows the future *is* ready and advances it when `poll` returns -`Poll::Ready(Some(message))` or `Poll::Ready(None)`. +In the “Sending Data Between Two Tasks Using Message +Passing” section, we described waiting on +`rx.recv`. The `recv` call returns a future, and awaiting the future polls it. +We noted that a runtime will pause the future until it’s ready with either +`Some(message)` or `None` when the channel closes. With our deeper +understanding of the `Future` trait, and specifically `Future::poll`, we can +see how that works. The runtime knows the future isn’t ready when it returns +`Poll::Pending`. Conversely, the runtime knows the future *is* ready and +advances it when `poll` returns `Poll::Ready(Some(message))` or +`Poll::Ready(None)`. The exact details of how a runtime does that are beyond the scope of this book, but the key is to see the basic mechanics of futures: a runtime *polls* each @@ -2670,30 +1742,66 @@ yet ready. <!-- Old headings. Do not remove or links may break. --> <a id="pinning-and-the-pin-and-unpin-traits"></a> +<a id="the-pin-and-unpin-traits"></a> -### The Pin and Unpin Traits +### The Pin Type and the Unpin Trait -When we introduced the idea of pinning in Listing 17-16, we ran into a very -gnarly error message. Here is the relevant part of it again: +Back in Listing 17-13, we used the `trpl::join!` macro to await three +futures. However, it’s common to have a collection such as a vector containing +some number futures that won’t be known until runtime. Let’s change Listing +17-13 to the code in Listing 17-23 that puts the three futures into a vector +and calls the `trpl::join_all` function instead, which won’t compile yet. + +src/main.rs + +``` + let tx_fut = async move { + // --snip-- + }; + + let futures: Vec<Box<dyn Future<Output = ()>>> = + vec![Box::new(tx1_fut), Box::new(rx_fut), Box::new(tx_fut)]; + + trpl::join_all(futures).await; +``` + +Listing 17-23: Awaiting futures in a collection + +We put each future within a `Box` to make them into *trait objects*, just as +we did in the “Returning Errors from `run`” section in Chapter 12. (We’ll cover +trait objects in detail in Chapter 18.) Using trait objects lets us treat each +of the anonymous futures produced by these types as the same type, because all +of them implement the `Future` trait. + +This might be surprising. After all, none of the async blocks returns anything, +so each one produces a `Future<Output = ()>`. Remember that `Future` is a +trait, though, and that the compiler creates a unique enum for each async +block, even when they have identical output types. Just as you can’t put two +different handwritten structs in a `Vec`, you can’t mix compiler-generated +enums. + +Then we pass the collection of futures to the `trpl::join_all` function and +await the result. However, this doesn’t compile; here’s the relevant part of +the error messages. <!-- manual-regeneration -cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-16 +cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-23 cargo build copy *only* the final `error` block from the errors --> ``` -error[E0277]: `{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}` cannot be unpinned +error[E0277]: `dyn Future<Output = ()>` cannot be unpinned --> src/main.rs:48:33 | 48 | trpl::join_all(futures).await; - | ^^^^^ the trait `Unpin` is not implemented for `{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}`, which is required by `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}>: Future` + | ^^^^^ the trait `Unpin` is not implemented for `dyn Future<Output = ()>` | = note: consider using the `pin!` macro consider using `Box::pin` if you need to access the pinned value outside of the current scope - = note: required for `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}>` to implement `Future` + = note: required for `Box<dyn Future<Output = ()>>` to implement `Future` note: required by a bound in `futures_util::future::join_all::JoinAll` - --> file:///home/.cargo/registry/src/index.crates.io-6f17d22bba15001f/futures-util-0.3.30/src/future/join_all.rs:29:8 + --> file:///home/.cargo/registry/src/index.crates.io-1949cf8c6b5b557f/futures-util-0.3.30/src/future/join_all.rs:29:8 | 27 | pub struct JoinAll<F> | ------- required by a bound in this struct @@ -2702,23 +1810,26 @@ note: required by a bound in `futures_util::future::join_all::JoinAll` | ^^^^^^ required by this bound in `JoinAll` ``` -This error message tells us not only that we need to pin the values but also why -pinning is required. The `trpl::join_all` function returns a struct called -`JoinAll`. That struct is generic over a type `F`, which is constrained to -implement the `Future` trait. Directly awaiting a future with `await` pins the -future implicitly. That’s why we don’t need to use `pin!` everywhere we want to -await futures. +The note in this error message tells us that we should use the `pin!` macro to +*pin* the values, which means putting them inside the `Pin` type that +guarantees the values won’t be moved in memory. The error message says pinning +is required because `dyn Future<Output = ()>` needs to implement the `Unpin` +trait and it currently does not. -However, we’re not directly awaiting a future here. Instead, we construct a new -future, `JoinAll`, by passing a collection of futures to the `join_all` -function. The signature for `join_all` requires that the types of the items in -the collection all implement the `Future` trait, and `Box<T>` implements -`Future` only if the `T` it wraps is a future that implements the `Unpin` trait. +The `trpl::join_all` function returns a struct called `JoinAll`. That struct is +generic over a type `F`, which is constrained to implement the `Future` trait. +Directly awaiting a future with `await` pins the future implicitly. That’s why +we don’t need to use `pin!` everywhere we want to await futures. -That’s a lot to absorb! To really understand it, let’s we dive a little further -into how the `Future` trait actually works, in particular around *pinning*. +However, we’re not directly awaiting a future here. Instead, we construct a new +future, JoinAll, by passing a collection of futures to the `join_all` function. +The signature for `join_all` requires that the types of the items in the +collection all implement the `Future` trait, and `Box<T>` implements `Future` +only if the `T` it wraps is a future that implements the `Unpin` trait. -Look again at the definition of the `Future` trait: +That’s a lot to absorb! To really understand it, let’s dive a little further +into how the `Future` trait actually works, in particular around pinning. Look +again at the definition of the `Future` trait: ``` use std::pin::Pin; @@ -2737,12 +1848,11 @@ knows when to check any given future while still being lazy. Again, the details of how that works are beyond the scope of this chapter, and you generally only need to think about this when writing a custom `Future` implementation. We’ll focus instead on the type for `self`, as this is the first time we’ve seen a -method where `self` has a type annotation. A type annotation for `self` is works -like type annotations for other function parameters, but with two key +method where `self` has a type annotation. A type annotation for `self` works +like type annotations for other function parameters but with two key differences: * It tells Rust what type `self` must be for the method to be called. - * It can’t be just any type. It’s restricted to the type on which the method is implemented, a reference or smart pointer to that type, or a `Pin` wrapping a reference to that type. @@ -2754,30 +1864,30 @@ type. `Pin` is a wrapper for pointer-like types such as `&`, `&mut`, `Box`, and `Rc`. (Technically, `Pin` works with types that implement the `Deref` or `DerefMut` -traits, but this is effectively equivalent to working only with pointers.) `Pin` -is not a pointer itself and doesn’t have any behavior of its own like `Rc` and -`Arc` do with reference counting; it’s purely a tool the compiler can use to -enforce constraints on pointer usage. +traits, but this is effectively equivalent to working only with references and +smart pointers.) `Pin` is not a pointer itself and doesn’t have any behavior of +its own like `Rc` and `Arc` do with reference counting; it’s purely a tool the +compiler can use to enforce constraints on pointer usage. Recalling that `await` is implemented in terms of calls to `poll` starts to explain the error message we saw earlier, but that was in terms of `Unpin`, not `Pin`. So how exactly does `Pin` relate to `Unpin`, and why does `Future` need `self` to be in a `Pin` type to call `poll`? -Remember from earlier in this chapter a series of await points in a future get -compiled into a state machine, and the compiler makes sure that state machine -follows all of Rust’s normal rules around safety, including borrowing and -ownership. To make that work, Rust looks at what data is needed between one +Remember from earlier in this chapter that a series of await points in a future +get compiled into a state machine, and the compiler makes sure that state +machine follows all of Rust’s normal rules around safety, including borrowing +and ownership. To make that work, Rust looks at what data is needed between one await point and either the next await point or the end of the async block. It -then creates a corresponding variant in the compiled state machine. Each variant -gets the access it needs to the data that will be used in that section of the -source code, whether by taking ownership of that data or by getting a mutable or -immutable reference to it. +then creates a corresponding variant in the compiled state machine. Each +variant gets the access it needs to the data that will be used in that section +of the source code, whether by taking ownership of that data or by getting a +mutable or immutable reference to it. -So far, so good: if we get anything wrong about the ownership or references in a -given async block, the borrow checker will tell us. When we want to move around -the future that corresponds to that block—like moving it into a `Vec` to pass to -`join_all`—things get trickier. +So far, so good: if we get anything wrong about the ownership or references in +a given async block, the borrow checker will tell us. When we want to move +around the future that corresponds to that block—like moving it into a `Vec` to +pass to `join_all`—things get trickier. When we move a future—whether by pushing it into a data structure to use as an iterator with `join_all` or by returning it from a function—that actually means @@ -2787,7 +1897,7 @@ themselves in the fields of any given variant, as shown in the simplified illust <img alt="A single-column, three-row table representing a future, fut1, which has data values 0 and 1 in the first two rows and an arrow pointing from the third row back to the second row, representing an internal reference within the future." src="img/trpl17-04.svg" class="center" /> -Figure 17-4: A self-referential data type. +Figure 17-4: A self-referential data type By default, though, any object that has a reference to itself is unsafe to move, because references always point to the actual memory address of whatever they @@ -2806,7 +1916,7 @@ Theoretically, the Rust compiler could try to update every reference to an object whenever it gets moved, but that could add a lot of performance overhead, especially if a whole web of references needs updating. If we could instead make sure the data structure in question *doesn’t move in memory*, we wouldn’t have -to update any references. This is exactly what Rust’s borrow checker requires: +to update any references. This is exactly what Rust’s borrow checker is for: in safe code, it prevents you from moving any item with an active reference to it. @@ -2815,32 +1925,32 @@ value by wrapping a pointer to that value in `Pin`, it can no longer move. Thus, if you have `Pin<Box<SomeType>>`, you actually pin the `SomeType` value, *not* the `Box` pointer. Figure 17-6 illustrates this process. -<img alt="Three boxes laid out side by side. The first is labeled “Pin”, the second “b1”, and the third “pinned”. Within “pinned” is a table labeled “fut”, with a single column; it represents a future with cells for each part of the data structure. Its first cell has the value “0”, its second cell has an arrow coming out of it and pointing to the fourth and final cell, which has the value “1” in it, and the third cell has dashed lines and an ellipsis to indicate there may be other parts to the data structure. All together, the “fut” table represents a future which is self-referential. An arrow leaves the box labeled “Pin”, goes through the box labeled “b1” and has terminates inside the “pinned” box at the “fut” table." src="img/trpl17-06.svg" class="center" /> +<img alt="Three boxes laid out side by side. The first is labeled “Pin”, the second “b1”, and the third “pinned”. Within “pinned” is a table labeled “fut”, with a single column; it represents a future with cells for each part of the data structure. Its first cell has the value “0”, its second cell has an arrow coming out of it and pointing to the fourth and final cell, which has the value “1” in it, and the third cell has dashed lines and an ellipsis to indicate there may be other parts to the data structure. All together, the “fut” table represents a future which is self-referential. An arrow leaves the box labeled “Pin”, goes through the box labeled “b1” and terminates inside the “pinned” box at the “fut” table." src="img/trpl17-06.svg" class="center" /> -Figure 17-6: Pinning a `Box` that points to a self-referential future type. +Figure 17-6: Pinning a `Box` that points to a self-referential future type In fact, the `Box` pointer can still move around freely. Remember: we care about making sure the data ultimately being referenced stays in place. If a pointer -moves around, *but the data it points to is in the same place*, as in Figure -17-7, there’s no potential problem. As an independent exercise, look at the docs +moves around, *but the data it points to* is in the same place, as in Figure +17-7, there’s no potential problem. (As an independent exercise, look at the docs for the types as well as the `std::pin` module and try to work out how you’d do this with a `Pin` wrapping a `Box`.) The key is that the self-referential type itself cannot move, because it is still pinned. <img alt="Four boxes laid out in three rough columns, identical to the previous diagram with a change to the second column. Now there are two boxes in the second column, labeled “b1” and “b2”, “b1” is grayed out, and the arrow from “Pin” goes through “b2” instead of “b1”, indicating that the pointer has moved from “b1” to “b2”, but the data in “pinned” has not moved." src="img/trpl17-07.svg" class="center" /> -Figure 17-7: Moving a `Box` which points to a self-referential future type. +Figure 17-7: Moving a `Box` which points to a self-referential future type However, most types are perfectly safe to move around, even if they happen to be behind a `Pin` pointer. We only need to think about pinning when items have internal references. Primitive values such as numbers and Booleans are safe -since they obviously don’t have any internal references, so they’re obviously -safe. Neither do most types you normally work with in Rust. You can move around -a `Vec`, for example, without worrying. Given only what we have seen so far, if +because they obviously don’t have any internal references. +Neither do most types you normally work with in Rust. You can move around +a `Vec`, for example, without worrying. Given what we have seen so far, if you have a `Pin<Vec<String>>`, you’d have to do everything via the safe but restrictive APIs provided by `Pin`, even though a `Vec<String>` is always safe to move if there are no other references to it. We need a way to tell the -compiler that it’s fine to move items around in cases like this—and there’s +compiler that it’s fine to move items around in cases like this—and that’s where `Unpin` comes into play. `Unpin` is a marker trait, similar to the `Send` and `Sync` traits we saw in @@ -2874,26 +1984,55 @@ characters that make it up. We can wrap a `String` in `Pin`, as seen in Figure 17-8. However, `String` automatically implements `Unpin`, as do most other types in Rust. -<img alt="Concurrent work flow" src="img/trpl17-08.svg" class="center" /> +<img alt="A box labeled “Pin” on the left with an arrow going from it to a box labeled “String” on the right. The “String” box contains the data 5usize, representing the length of the string, and the letters “h”, “e”, “l”, “l”, and “o” representing the characters of the string “hello” stored in this String instance. A dotted rectangle surrounds the “String” box and its label, but not the “Pin” box." src="img/trpl17-08.svg" class="center" /> -Figure 17-8: Pinning a `String`; the dotted line indicates that the `String` implements the `Unpin` trait, and thus is not pinned. +Figure 17-8: Pinning a `String`; the dotted line indicates that the `String` implements the `Unpin` trait and thus is not pinned As a result, we can do things that would be illegal if `String` implemented `!Unpin` instead, such as replacing one string with another at the exact same location in memory as in Figure 17-9. This doesn’t violate the `Pin` contract, -because `String` has no internal references that make it unsafe to move around! +because `String` has no internal references that make it unsafe to move around. That is precisely why it implements `Unpin` rather than `!Unpin`. -<img alt="Concurrent work flow" src="img/trpl17-09.svg" class="center" /> +<img alt="The same “hello” string data from the previous example, now labeled “s1” and grayed out. The “Pin” box from the previous example now points to a different String instance, one that is labeled “s2”, is valid, has a length of 7usize, and contains the characters of the string “goodbye”. s2 is surrounded by a dotted rectangle because it, too, implements the Unpin trait." src="img/trpl17-09.svg" class="center" /> -Figure 17-9: Replacing the `String` with an entirely different `String` in memory. +Figure 17-9: Replacing the `String` with an entirely different `String` in memory Now we know enough to understand the errors reported for that `join_all` call -from back in Listing 17-17. We originally tried to move the futures produced by +from back in Listing 17-23. We originally tried to move the futures produced by async blocks into a `Vec<Box<dyn Future<Output = ()>>>`, but as we’ve seen, -those futures may have internal references, so they don’t implement `Unpin`. -They need to be pinned, and then we can pass the `Pin` type into the `Vec`, -confident that the underlying data in the futures will *not* be moved. +those futures may have internal references, so they don’t automatically +implement `Unpin`. Once we pin them, we can pass the resulting `Pin` type into +the `Vec`, confident that the underlying data in the futures will *not* be +moved. Listing 17-24 shows how to fix the code by calling the `pin!` macro +where each of the three futures are defined and adjusting the trait object type. + + +``` +use std::pin::{Pin, pin}; + +// --snip-- + + let tx1_fut = pin!(async move { + // --snip-- + }); + + let rx_fut = pin!(async { + // --snip-- + }); + + let tx_fut = pin!(async move { + // --snip-- + }); + + let futures: Vec<Pin<&mut dyn Future<Output = ()>>> = + vec![tx1_fut, rx_fut, tx_fut]; +``` + +Listing 17-24: Pinning the futures to enable moving them into the vector + +This example now compiles and runs, and we could add or remove futures from the +vector at runtime and join them all. `Pin` and `Unpin` are mostly important for building lower-level libraries, or when you’re building a runtime itself, rather than for day-to-day Rust code. @@ -2911,24 +2050,26 @@ idea of how to fix your code! > if you’re interested in learning more, that’s a great place to start. > > If you want to understand how things work under the hood in even more detail, -> see Chapters 2 at *https://rust-lang.github.io/async-book/02_execution/01_chapter.html* and 4 at *https://rust-lang.github.io/async-book/04_pinning/01_chapter.html* of *Asynchronous -> Programming in Rust* at *https://rust-lang.github.io/async-book/*. +> see Chapters 2 and +> 4 of +> *Asynchronous Programming in Rust* at *https://rust-lang.github.io/async-book/*. ### The Stream Trait Now that you have a deeper grasp on the `Future`, `Pin`, and `Unpin` traits, we can turn our attention to the `Stream` trait. As you learned earlier in the chapter, streams are similar to asynchronous iterators. Unlike `Iterator` and -`Future`, however, `Stream` has no definition in the standard library as of this -writing, but there *is* a very common definition from the `futures` crate used -throughout the ecosystem. +`Future`, however, `Stream` has no definition in the standard library as of +this writing, but there *is* a very common definition from the `futures` crate +used throughout the ecosystem. Let’s review the definitions of the `Iterator` and `Future` traits before looking at how a `Stream` trait might merge them together. From `Iterator`, we -have the idea of a sequence: its `next` method provides an `Option<Self::Item>`. -From `Future`, we have the idea of readiness over time: its `poll` method -provides a `Poll<Self::Output>`. To represent a sequence of items that become -ready over time, we define a `Stream` trait that puts those features together: +have the idea of a sequence: its `next` method provides an +`Option<Self::Item>`. From `Future`, we have the idea of readiness over time: +its `poll` method provides a `Poll<Self::Output>`. To represent a sequence of +items that become ready over time, we define a `Stream` trait that puts those +features together: ``` use std::pin::Pin; @@ -2958,15 +2099,15 @@ because it needs to signal whether there are more messages, just as an iterator does. Something very similar to this definition will likely end up as part of Rust’s -standard library. In the meantime, it’s part of the toolkit of most runtimes, so -you can rely on it, and everything we cover next should generally apply! +standard library. In the meantime, it’s part of the toolkit of most runtimes, +so you can rely on it, and everything we cover next should generally apply! -In the example we saw in the section on streaming, though, we didn’t use -`poll_next` *or* `Stream`, but instead used `next` and `StreamExt`. We *could* -work directly in terms of the `poll_next` API by hand-writing our own `Stream` -state machines, of course, just as we *could* work with futures directly via -their `poll` method. Using `await` is much nicer, though, and the `StreamExt` -trait supplies the `next` method so we can do just that: +In the examples we saw in the “Streams: Futures in Sequence” section, though, we didn’t use `poll_next` *or* `Stream`, but +instead used `next` and `StreamExt`. We *could* work directly in terms of the +`poll_next` API by hand-writing our own `Stream` state machines, of course, +just as we *could* work with futures directly via their `poll` method. Using +`await` is much nicer, though, and the `StreamExt` trait supplies the `next` +method so we can do just that: ``` trait StreamExt: Stream { @@ -3016,18 +2157,17 @@ fit together! As we saw in Chapter 16, threads provide one approach to concurrency. We’ve seen another approach in this chapter: using async with -futures and streams. If you‘re wondering when to choose method over the other, +futures and streams. If you’re wondering when to choose one method over the other, the answer is: it depends! And in many cases, the choice isn’t threads *or* async but rather threads *and* async. Many operating systems have supplied threading-based concurrency models for decades now, and many programming languages support them as a result. However, these models are not without their tradeoffs. On many operating systems, they -use a fair bit of memory for each thread, and they come with some overhead for -starting up and shutting down. Threads are also only an option when your -operating system and hardware support them. Unlike mainstream desktop and mobile -computers, some embedded systems don’t have an OS at all, so they also don’t -have threads. +use a fair bit of memory for each thread. Threads are also only an option when +your operating system and hardware support them. Unlike mainstream desktop and +mobile computers, some embedded systems don’t have an OS at all, so they also +don’t have threads. The async model provides a different—and ultimately complementary—set of tradeoffs. In the async model, concurrent operations don’t require their own @@ -3036,81 +2176,25 @@ kick off work from a synchronous function in the streams section. A task is similar to a thread, but instead of being managed by the operating system, it’s managed by library-level code: the runtime. -In the previous section, we saw that we could build a stream by using an async -channel and spawning an async task we could call from synchronous code. We can -do the exact same thing with a thread. In Listing 17-40, we used -`trpl::spawn_task` and `trpl::sleep`. In Listing 17-41, we replace those with -the `thread::spawn` and `thread::sleep` APIs from the standard library in the -`get_intervals` function. - -src/main.rs - -``` -fn get_intervals() -> impl Stream<Item = u32> { - let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); - - // This is *not* `trpl::spawn` but `std::thread::spawn`! - thread::spawn(move || { - let mut count = 0; - loop { - // Likewise, this is *not* `trpl::sleep` but `std::thread::sleep`! - thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)); - count += 1; - - if let Err(send_error) = tx.send(count) { - eprintln!("Could not send interval {count}: {send_error}"); - break; - }; - } - }); - - ReceiverStream::new(rx) -} -``` - -Listing 17-41: Using the `std::thread` APIs instead of the async `trpl` APIs for the `get_intervals` function - -If you run this code, the output is identical to that of Listing 17-40. And -notice how little changes here from the perspective of the calling code. What’s -more, even though one of our functions spawned an async task on the runtime and -the other spawned an OS thread, the resulting streams were unaffected by the -differences. - -Despite their similarities, these two approaches behave very differently, -although we might have a hard time measuring it in this very simple example. We -could spawn millions of async tasks on any modern personal computer. If we tried -to do that with threads, we would literally run out of memory! - -However, there’s a reason these APIs are so similar. Threads act as a boundary -for sets of synchronous operations; concurrency is possible *between* threads. -Tasks act as a boundary for sets of *asynchronous* operations; concurrency is -possible both *between* and *within* tasks, because a task can switch between -futures in its body. Finally, futures are Rust’s most granular unit of -concurrency, and each future may represent a tree of other futures. The -runtime—specifically, its executor—manages tasks, and tasks manage futures. In -that regard, tasks are similar to lightweight, runtime-managed threads with -added capabilities that come from being managed by a runtime instead of by the -operating system. +There’s a reason the APIs for spawning threads and spawning tasks are so +similar. Threads act as a boundary for sets of synchronous operations; +concurrency is possible *between* threads. Tasks act as a boundary for sets of +*asynchronous* operations; concurrency is possible both *between* and *within* +tasks, because a task can switch between futures in its body. Finally, futures +are Rust’s most granular unit of concurrency, and each future may represent a +tree of other futures. The runtime—specifically, its executor—manages tasks, +and tasks manage futures. In that regard, tasks are similar to lightweight, +runtime-managed threads with added capabilities that come from being managed by +a runtime instead of by the operating system. This doesn’t mean that async tasks are always better than threads (or vice versa). Concurrency with threads is in some ways a simpler programming model than concurrency with `async`. That can be a strength or a weakness. Threads are somewhat “fire and forget”; they have no native equivalent to a future, so they simply run to completion without being interrupted except by the operating -system itself. That is, they have no built-in support for *intratask -concurrency* the way futures do. Threads in Rust also have no mechanisms for -cancellation—a subject we haven’t covered explicitly in this chapter but was -implied by the fact that whenever we ended a future, its state got cleaned up -correctly. - -These limitations also make threads harder to compose than futures. It’s much -more difficult, for example, to use threads to build helpers such as the -`timeout` and `throttle` methods we built earlier in this chapter. The fact that -futures are richer data structures means they can be composed together more -naturally, as we have seen. - -Tasks, then, give us *additional* control over futures, allowing us to choose -where and how to group them. And it turns out that threads and tasks often work +system itself. + +And it turns out that threads and tasks often work very well together, because tasks can (at least in some runtimes) be moved around between threads. In fact, under the hood, the runtime we’ve been using—including the `spawn_blocking` and `spawn_task` functions—is multithreaded @@ -3121,15 +2205,16 @@ approach actually requires threads *and* tasks, and therefore futures. When thinking about which method to use when, consider these rules of thumb: -* If the work is *very parallelizable*, such as processing a bunch of data where - each part can be processed separately, threads are a better choice. -* If the work is *very concurrent*, such as handling messages from a bunch of - different sources that may come in at different intervals or different rates, - async is a better choice. +* If the work is *very parallelizable* (that is, CPU-bound), such as processing + a bunch of data where each part can be processed separately, threads are a + better choice. +* If the work is *very concurrent* (that is, I/O-bound), such as handling + messages from a bunch of different sources that may come in at different + intervals or different rates, async is a better choice. And if you need both parallelism and concurrency, you don’t have to choose -between threads and async. You can use them together freely, letting each one -play the part it’s best at. For example, Listing 17-42 shows a fairly common +between threads and async. You can use them together freely, letting each +play the part it’s best at. For example, Listing 17-25 shows a fairly common example of this kind of mix in real-world Rust code. src/main.rs @@ -3147,7 +2232,7 @@ fn main() { } }); - trpl::run(async { + trpl::block_on(async { while let Some(message) = rx.recv().await { println!("{message}"); } @@ -3155,29 +2240,32 @@ fn main() { } ``` -Listing 17-42: Sending messages with blocking code in a thread and awaiting the messages in an async block +Listing 17-25: Sending messages with blocking code in a thread and awaiting the messages in an async block -We begin by creating an async channel, then spawn a thread that takes -ownership of the sender side of the channel. Within the thread, we send the -numbers 1 through 10, sleeping for a second between each. Finally, we run a -future created with an async block passed to `trpl::run` just as we have -throughout the chapter. In that future, we await those messages, just as in -the other message-passing examples we have seen. +We begin by creating an async channel, then spawning a thread that takes +ownership of the sender side of the channel using the `move` keyword. Within +the thread, we send the numbers 1 through 10, sleeping for a second between +each. Finally, we run a future created with an async block passed to +`trpl::block_on` just as we have throughout the chapter. In that future, we +await those messages, just as in the other message-passing examples we have +seen. To return to the scenario we opened the chapter with, imagine running a set of video encoding tasks using a dedicated thread (because video encoding is -compute-bound) but notifying the UI that those operations are done with an async -channel. There are countless examples of these kinds of combinations in +compute-bound) but notifying the UI that those operations are done with an +async channel. There are countless examples of these kinds of combinations in real-world use cases. ## Summary This isn’t the last you’ll see of concurrency in this book. The project in -Chapter 21 at *ch21-00-final-project-a-web-server.html* will apply these concepts in a more realistic situation -than the simpler examples discussed here and compare problem-solving with threading versus tasks more directly. +Chapter 21 will apply these concepts in a more realistic +situation than the simpler examples discussed here and compare problem-solving +with threading versus tasks and futures more directly. -No matter which of these approaches you choose, Rust gives you the tools you need to write safe, fast, concurrent -code—whether for a high-throughput web server or an embedded operating system. +No matter which of these approaches you choose, Rust gives you the tools you +need to write safe, fast, concurrent code—whether for a high-throughput web +server or an embedded operating system. Next, we’ll talk about idiomatic ways to model problems and structure solutions as your Rust programs get bigger. In addition, we’ll discuss how Rust’s idioms diff --git a/nostarch/chapter18.md b/nostarch/chapter18.md index 64dbe762f6..d2f56ea790 100644 --- a/nostarch/chapter18.md +++ b/nostarch/chapter18.md @@ -179,11 +179,11 @@ called *polymorphism*, which means that you can substitute multiple objects for each other at runtime if they share certain characteristics. > ### Polymorphism -> +> > To many people, polymorphism is synonymous with inheritance. But it’s > actually a more general concept that refers to code that can work with data of > multiple types. For inheritance, those types are generally subclasses. -> +> > Rust instead uses generics to abstract over different possible types and > trait bounds to impose constraints on what those types must provide. This is > sometimes called *bounded parametric polymorphism*. @@ -1004,7 +1004,7 @@ pattern with the rules of the blog post workflow. The logic related to the rules lives in the state objects rather than being scattered throughout `Post`. > ### Why Not An Enum? -> +> > You may have been wondering why we didn’t use an enum with the different > possible post states as variants. That’s certainly a possible solution; try it > and compare the end results to see which you prefer! One disadvantage of using diff --git a/nostarch/docx/chapter17.docx b/nostarch/docx/chapter17.docx index 70eb84eeac..43bff31d73 100644 Binary files a/nostarch/docx/chapter17.docx and b/nostarch/docx/chapter17.docx differ diff --git a/src/ch17-00-async-await.md b/src/ch17-00-async-await.md index 2598b10e43..8564b1e41d 100644 --- a/src/ch17-00-async-await.md +++ b/src/ch17-00-async-await.md @@ -1,48 +1,54 @@ # Fundamentals of Asynchronous Programming: Async, Await, Futures, and Streams Many operations we ask the computer to do can take a while to finish. It would -be nice if we could do something else while we are waiting for those +be nice if we could do something else while we’re waiting for those long-running processes to complete. Modern computers offer two techniques for -working on more than one operation at a time: parallelism and concurrency. Once -we start writing programs that involve parallel or concurrent operations, -though, we quickly encounter new challenges inherent to _asynchronous -programming_, where operations may not finish sequentially in the order they -were started. This chapter builds on Chapter 16’s use of threads for parallelism -and concurrency by introducing an alternative approach to asynchronous -programming: Rust’s Futures, Streams, the `async` and `await` syntax that -supports them, and the tools for managing and coordinating between asynchronous -operations. +working on more than one operation at a time: parallelism and concurrency. Our +programs’ logic, however, is written in a mostly linear fashion. We’d like to +be able to specify the operations a program should perform and points at which +a function could pause and some other part of the program could run instead, +without needing to specify up front exactly the order and manner in which each +bit of code should run. _Asynchronous programming_ is an abstraction that lets +us express our code in terms of potential pausing points and eventual results +that takes care of the details of coordination for us. + +This chapter builds on Chapter 16’s use of threads for parallelism and +concurrency by introducing an alternative approach to writing code: Rust’s +futures, streams, and the `async` and `await` syntax that let us express how +operations could be asynchronous, and the third-party crates that implement +asynchronous runtimes: code that manages and coordinates the execution of +asynchronous operations. Let’s consider an example. Say you’re exporting a video you’ve created of a -family celebration, an operation that could take anywhere from minutes to hours. -The video export will use as much CPU and GPU power as it can. If you had only -one CPU core and your operating system didn’t pause that export until it -completed—that is, if it executed the export _synchronously_—you couldn’t do +family celebration, an operation that could take anywhere from minutes to +hours. The video export will use as much CPU and GPU power as it can. If you +had only one CPU core and your operating system didn’t pause that export until +it completed—that is, if it executed the export _synchronously_—you couldn’t do anything else on your computer while that task was running. That would be a pretty frustrating experience. Fortunately, your computer’s operating system can, and does, invisibly interrupt the export often enough to let you get other work done simultaneously. -Now say you’re downloading a video shared by someone else, which can also take a -while but does not take up as much CPU time. In this case, the CPU has to wait -for data to arrive from the network. While you can start reading the data once -it starts to arrive, it might take some time for all of it to show up. Even once -the data is all present, if the video is quite large, it could take at least a -second or two to load it all. That might not sound like much, but it’s a very -long time for a modern processor, which can perform billions of operations every -second. Again, your operating system will invisibly interrupt your program to -allow the CPU to perform other work while waiting for the network call to -finish. +Now say you’re downloading a video shared by someone else, which can also take +a while but does not take up as much CPU time. In this case, the CPU has to +wait for data to arrive from the network. While you can start reading the data +once it starts to arrive, it might take some time for all of it to show up. +Even once the data is all present, if the video is quite large, it could take +at least a second or two to load it all. That might not sound like much, but +it’s a very long time for a modern processor, which can perform billions of +operations every second. Again, your operating system will invisibly interrupt +your program to allow the CPU to perform other work while waiting for the +network call to finish. The video export is an example of a _CPU-bound_ or _compute-bound_ operation. -It’s limited by the computer’s potential data processing speed within the CPU or -GPU, and how much of that speed it can dedicate to the operation. The video -download is an example of an _IO-bound_ operation, because it’s limited by the +It’s limited by the computer’s potential data processing speed within the CPU +or GPU, and how much of that speed it can dedicate to the operation. The video +download is an example of an _I/O-bound_ operation, because it’s limited by the speed of the computer’s _input and output_; it can only go as fast as the data can be sent across the network. -In both of these examples, the operating system’s invisible interrupts provide a -form of concurrency. That concurrency happens only at the level of the entire +In both of these examples, the operating system’s invisible interrupts provide +a form of concurrency. That concurrency happens only at the level of the entire program, though: the operating system interrupts one program to let other programs get work done. In many cases, because we understand our programs at a much more granular level than the operating system does, we can spot @@ -62,68 +68,66 @@ completely ready. > _non_-blocking. We could avoid blocking our main thread by spawning a dedicated thread to -download each file. However, the overhead of those threads would eventually -become a problem. It would be preferable if the call didn’t block in the first -place. It would also be better if we could write in the same direct style we use -in blocking code, similar to this: - -```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -let data = fetch_data_from(url).await; -println!("{data}"); -``` - -That is exactly what Rust’s _async_ (short for _asynchronous_) abstraction gives -us. In this chapter, you’ll learn all about async as we cover the following -topics: - -- How to use Rust’s `async` and `await` syntax +download each file. However, the overhead of the system resources used by those +threads would eventually become a problem. It would be preferable if the call +didn’t block in the first place, and instead we could define a number of tasks +that we’d like our program to complete and allow the runtime to choose the best +order and manner in which to run them. + +That is exactly what Rust’s _async_ (short for _asynchronous_) abstraction +gives us. In this chapter, you’ll learn all about async as we cover the +following topics: + +- How to use Rust’s `async` and `await` syntax and execute asynchronous + functions with a runtime - How to use the async model to solve some of the same challenges we looked at in Chapter 16 -- How multithreading and async provide complementary solutions, that you can +- How multithreading and async provide complementary solutions that you can combine in many cases Before we see how async works in practice, though, we need to take a short detour to discuss the differences between parallelism and concurrency. -### Parallelism and Concurrency +## Parallelism and Concurrency We’ve treated parallelism and concurrency as mostly interchangeable so far. Now -we need to distinguish between them more precisely, because the differences will -show up as we start working. +we need to distinguish between them more precisely, because the differences +will show up as we start working. Consider the different ways a team could split up work on a software project. -You could assign a single member multiple tasks, assign each member one task, or -use a mix of the two approaches. +You could assign a single member multiple tasks, assign each member one task, +or use a mix of the two approaches. When an individual works on several different tasks before any of them is -complete, this is _concurrency_. Maybe you have two different projects checked -out on your computer, and when you get bored or stuck on one project, you switch -to the other. You’re just one person, so you can’t make progress on both tasks -at the exact same time, but you can multi-task, making progress on one at a time -by switching between them (see Figure 17-1). +complete, this is _concurrency_. One way to implement concurrency is similar to +having two different projects checked out on your computer, and when you get +bored or stuck on one project, you switch to the other. You’re just one person, +so you can’t make progress on both tasks at the exact same time, but you can +multitask, making progress on one at a time by switching between them (see +Figure 17-1). <figure> -<img src="img/trpl17-01.svg" class="center" alt="A diagram with boxes labeled Task A and Task B, with diamonds in them representing subtasks. There are arrows pointing from A1 to B1, B1 to A2, A2 to B2, B2 to A3, A3 to A4, and A4 to B3. The arrows between the subtasks cross the boxes between Task A and Task B." /> +<img src="img/trpl17-01.svg" class="center" alt="A diagram with stacked boxes labeled Task A and Task B, with diamonds in them representing subtasks. Arrows point from A1 to B1, B1 to A2, A2 to B2, B2 to A3, A3 to A4, and A4 to B3. The arrows between the subtasks cross the boxes between Task A and Task B." /> <figcaption>Figure 17-1: A concurrent workflow, switching between Task A and Task B</figcaption> </figure> -When the team splits up a group of tasks by having each member take one task and -work on it alone, this is _parallelism_. Each person on the team can make +When the team splits up a group of tasks by having each member take one task +and work on it alone, this is _parallelism_. Each person on the team can make progress at the exact same time (see Figure 17-2). <figure> -<img src="img/trpl17-02.svg" class="center" alt="A diagram with boxes labeled Task A and Task B, with diamonds in them representing subtasks. There are arrows pointing from A1 to A2, A2 to A3, A3 to A4, B1 to B2, and B2 to B3. No arrows cross between the boxes for Task A and Task B." /> +<img src="img/trpl17-02.svg" class="center" alt="A diagram with stacked boxes labeled Task A and Task B, with diamonds in them representing subtasks. Arrows point from A1 to A2, A2 to A3, A3 to A4, B1 to B2, and B2 to B3. No arrows cross between the boxes for Task A and Task B." /> <figcaption>Figure 17-2: A parallel workflow, where work happens on Task A and Task B independently</figcaption> </figure> In both of these workflows, you might have to coordinate between different -tasks. Maybe you _thought_ the task assigned to one person was totally +tasks. Maybe you thought the task assigned to one person was totally independent from everyone else’s work, but it actually requires another person on the team to finish their task first. Some of the work could be done in parallel, but some of it was actually _serial_: it could only happen in a @@ -131,7 +135,7 @@ series, one task after the other, as in Figure 17-3. <figure> -<img src="img/trpl17-03.svg" class="center" alt="A diagram with boxes labeled Task A and Task B, with diamonds in them representing subtasks. There are arrows pointing from A1 to A2, A2 to a pair of thick vertical lines like a “pause” symbol, from that symbol to A3, B1 to B2, B2 to B3, which is below that symbol, B3 to A3, and B3 to B4." /> +<img src="img/trpl17-03.svg" class="center" alt="A diagram with stacked boxes labeled Task A and Task B, with diamonds in them representing subtasks. In Task A, arrows point from A1 to A2, from A2 to a pair of thick vertical lines like a “pause” symbol, and from that symbol to A3. In task B, arrows point from B1 to B2, from B2 to B3, from B3 to A3, and from B3 to B4." /> <figcaption>Figure 17-3: A partially parallel workflow, where work happens on Task A and Task B independently until Task A3 is blocked on the results of Task B3.</figcaption> @@ -147,17 +151,17 @@ coworker are no longer able to work in parallel, and you’re also no longer abl to work concurrently on your own tasks. The same basic dynamics come into play with software and hardware. On a machine -with a single CPU core, the CPU can perform only one operation at a time, but it -can still work concurrently. Using tools such as threads, processes, and async, -the computer can pause one activity and switch to others before eventually -cycling back to that first activity again. On a machine with multiple CPU cores, -it can also do work in parallel. One core can be performing one task while -another core performs a completely unrelated one, and those operations actually -happen at the same time. - -When working with async in Rust, we’re always dealing with concurrency. -Depending on the hardware, the operating system, and the async runtime we are -using (more on async runtimes shortly), that concurrency may also use parallelism -under the hood. +with a single CPU core, the CPU can perform only one operation at a time, but +it can still work concurrently. Using tools such as threads, processes, and +async, the computer can pause one activity and switch to others before +eventually cycling back to that first activity again. On a machine with +multiple CPU cores, it can also do work in parallel. One core can be performing +one task while another core performs a completely unrelated one, and those +operations actually happen at the same time. + +Running async code in Rust usually happens concurrently. Depending on the +hardware, the operating system, and the async runtime we are using (more on +async runtimes shortly), that concurrency may also use parallelism under the +hood. Now, let’s dive into how async programming in Rust actually works. diff --git a/src/ch17-01-futures-and-syntax.md b/src/ch17-01-futures-and-syntax.md index 5263ce1779..4ac55c467a 100644 --- a/src/ch17-01-futures-and-syntax.md +++ b/src/ch17-01-futures-and-syntax.md @@ -9,29 +9,29 @@ under other names such as _task_ or _promise_.) Rust provides a `Future` trait as a building block so that different async operations can be implemented with different data structures but with a common interface. In Rust, futures are types that implement the `Future` trait. Each future holds its own information -about the progress that has been made and what "ready" means. +about the progress that has been made and what “ready” means. You can apply the `async` keyword to blocks and functions to specify that they -can be interrupted and resumed. Within an async block or async function, you can -use the `await` keyword to _await a future_ (that is, wait for it to become +can be interrupted and resumed. Within an async block or async function, you +can use the `await` keyword to _await a future_ (that is, wait for it to become ready). Any point where you await a future within an async block or function is -a potential spot for that async block or function to pause and resume. The -process of checking with a future to see if its value is available yet is called -_polling_. +a potential spot for that block or function to pause and resume. The process of +checking with a future to see if its value is available yet is called _polling_. Some other languages, such as C# and JavaScript, also use `async` and `await` -keywords for async programming. If you’re familiar with those languages, you may -notice some significant differences in how Rust does things, including how it -handles the syntax. That’s for good reason, as we’ll see! +keywords for async programming. If you’re familiar with those languages, you +may notice some significant differences in how Rust handles the syntax. That’s +for good reason, as we’ll see! When writing async Rust, we use the `async` and `await` keywords most of the time. Rust compiles them into equivalent code using the `Future` trait, much as -it compiles `for` loops into equivalent code using the `Iterator` trait. Because -Rust provides the `Future` trait, though, you can also implement it for your own -data types when you need to. Many of the functions we’ll see throughout this -chapter return types with their own implementations of `Future`. We’ll return to -the definition of the trait at the end of the chapter and dig into more of how -it works, but this is enough detail to keep us moving forward. +it compiles `for` loops into equivalent code using the `Iterator` trait. +Because Rust provides the `Future` trait, though, you can also implement it for +your own data types when you need to. Many of the functions we’ll see +throughout this chapter return types with their own implementations of +`Future`. We’ll return to the definition of the trait at the end of the chapter +and dig into more of how it works, but this is enough detail to keep us moving +forward. This may all feel a bit abstract, so let’s write our first async program: a little web scraper. We’ll pass in two URLs from the command line, fetch both of @@ -49,15 +49,14 @@ you’ll need, primarily from the [`futures`][futures-crate]<!-- ignore --> and for Rust experimentation for async code, and it’s actually where the `Future` trait was originally designed. Tokio is the most widely used async runtime in Rust today, especially for web applications. There are other great runtimes out -there, and they may be more suitable for your purposes. We use the `tokio` crate -under the hood for `trpl` because it’s well tested and widely used. +there, and they may be more suitable for your purposes. We use the `tokio` +crate under the hood for `trpl` because it’s well tested and widely used. In some cases, `trpl` also renames or wraps the original APIs to keep you focused on the details relevant to this chapter. If you want to understand what -the crate does, we encourage you to check out [its source -code][crate-source]<!-- ignore -->. You’ll be able to see what crate each -re-export comes from, and we’ve left extensive comments explaining what the -crate does. +the crate does, we encourage you to check out [its source code][crate-source]. +You’ll be able to see what crate each re-export comes from, and we’ve left +extensive comments explaining what the crate does. Create a new binary project named `hello-async` and add the `trpl` crate as a dependency: @@ -76,7 +75,8 @@ page finishes that whole process first. ### Defining the page_title Function Let’s start by writing a function that takes one page URL as a parameter, makes -a request to it, and returns the text of the title element (see Listing 17-1). +a request to it, and returns the text of the `<title>` element (see Listing +17-1). <Listing number="17-1" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Defining an async function to get the title element from an HTML page"> @@ -87,52 +87,52 @@ a request to it, and returns the text of the title element (see Listing 17-1). </Listing> First, we define a function named `page_title` and mark it with the `async` -keyword. Then we use the `trpl::get` function to fetch whatever URL is passed in -and add the `await` keyword to await the response. To get the text of the -response, we call its `text` method, and once again await it with the `await` +keyword. Then we use the `trpl::get` function to fetch whatever URL is passed +in and add the `await` keyword to await the response. To get the text of the +`response`, we call its `text` method and once again await it with the `await` keyword. Both of these steps are asynchronous. For the `get` function, we have to wait for the server to send back the first part of its response, which will -include HTTP headers, cookies, and so on, and can be delivered separately from +include HTTP headers, cookies, and so on and can be delivered separately from the response body. Especially if the body is very large, it can take some time -for it all to arrive. Because we have to wait for the _entirety_ of the response -to arrive, the `text` method is also async. +for it all to arrive. Because we have to wait for the _entirety_ of the +response to arrive, the `text` method is also async. We have to explicitly await both of these futures, because futures in Rust are _lazy_: they don’t do anything until you ask them to with the `await` keyword. (In fact, Rust will show a compiler warning if you don’t use a future.) This -might remind you of Chapter 13’s discussion of iterators in the section -[Processing a Series of Items With Iterators][iterators-lazy]<!-- ignore -->. +might remind you of the discussion of iterators in the [“Processing a Series of +Items with Iterators”][iterators-lazy]<!-- ignore --> section in Chapter 13. Iterators do nothing unless you call their `next` method—whether directly or by using `for` loops or methods such as `map` that use `next` under the hood. Likewise, futures do nothing unless you explicitly ask them to. This laziness allows Rust to avoid running async code until it’s actually needed. -> Note: This is different from the behavior we saw in the previous chapter when -> using `thread::spawn` in [Creating a New Thread with -> spawn][thread-spawn]<!--ignore-->, where the closure we passed to another -> thread started running immediately. It’s also different from how many other -> languages approach async. But it’s important for Rust to be able to provide -> its performance guarantees, just as it is with iterators. +> Note: This is different from the behavior we saw when using `thread::spawn` +> in the [“Creating a New Thread with spawn”][thread-spawn]<!-- ignore --> +> section in Chapter 16, where the closure we passed to another thread started +> running immediately. It’s also different from how many other languages +> approach async. But it’s important for Rust to be able to provide its +> performance guarantees, just as it is with iterators. Once we have `response_text`, we can parse it into an instance of the `Html` type using `Html::parse`. Instead of a raw string, we now have a data type we can use to work with the HTML as a richer data structure. In particular, we can use the `select_first` method to find the first instance of a given CSS -selector. By passing the string `"title"`, we’ll get the first `<title>` element -in the document, if there is one. Because there may not be any matching element, -`select_first` returns an `Option<ElementRef>`. Finally, we use the +selector. By passing the string `"title"`, we’ll get the first `<title>` +element in the document, if there is one. Because there may not be any matching +element, `select_first` returns an `Option<ElementRef>`. Finally, we use the `Option::map` method, which lets us work with the item in the `Option` if it’s present, and do nothing if it isn’t. (We could also use a `match` expression here, but `map` is more idiomatic.) In the body of the function we supply to -`map`, we call `inner_html` on the `title` to get its content, which is -a `String`. When all is said and done, we have an `Option<String>`. +`map`, we call `inner_html` on the `title` to get its content, which is a +`String`. When all is said and done, we have an `Option<String>`. Notice that Rust’s `await` keyword goes _after_ the expression you’re awaiting, not before it. That is, it’s a _postfix_ keyword. This may differ from what you’re used to if you’ve used `async` in other languages, but in Rust it makes -chains of methods much nicer to work with. As a result, we can change the body -of `page_title` to chain the `trpl::get` and `text` function calls together -with `await` between them, as shown in Listing 17-2. +chains of methods much nicer to work with. As a result, we could change the +body of `page_title` to chain the `trpl::get` and `text` function calls +together with `await` between them, as shown in Listing 17-2. <Listing number="17-2" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Chaining with the `await` keyword"> @@ -146,16 +146,16 @@ With that, we have successfully written our first async function! Before we add some code in `main` to call it, let’s talk a little more about what we’ve written and what it means. -When Rust sees a block marked with the `async` keyword, it compiles it into a -unique, anonymous data type that implements the `Future` trait. When Rust sees a -function marked with `async`, it compiles it into a non-async function whose -body is an async block. An async function’s return type is the type of the -anonymous data type the compiler creates for that async block. +When Rust sees a _block_ marked with the `async` keyword, it compiles it into a +unique, anonymous data type that implements the `Future` trait. When Rust sees +a _function_ marked with `async`, it compiles it into a non-async function +whose body is an async block. An async function’s return type is the type of +the anonymous data type the compiler creates for that async block. Thus, writing `async fn` is equivalent to writing a function that returns a _future_ of the return type. To the compiler, a function definition such as the -`async fn page_title` in Listing 17-1 is equivalent to a non-async function -defined like this: +`async fn page_title` in Listing 17-1 is roughly equivalent to a non-async +function defined like this: ```rust # extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test @@ -176,29 +176,29 @@ Let’s walk through each part of the transformed version: - It uses the `impl Trait` syntax we discussed back in Chapter 10 in the [“Traits as Parameters”][impl-trait]<!-- ignore --> section. -- The returned trait is a `Future` with an associated type of `Output`. Notice - that the `Output` type is `Option<String>`, which is the same as the original - return type from the `async fn` version of `page_title`. -- All of the code called in the body of the original function is wrapped in an - `async move` block. Remember that blocks are expressions. This whole block is - the expression returned from the function. +- The returned value implements the `Future` trait with an associated type of + `Output`. Notice that the `Output` type is `Option<String>`, which is the + same as the original return type from the `async fn` version of `page_title`. +- All of the code called in the body of the original function is wrapped in + an `async move` block. Remember that blocks are expressions. This whole block + is the expression returned from the function. - This async block produces a value with the type `Option<String>`, as just - described. That value matches the `Output` type in the return type. This - is just like other blocks you have seen. + described. That value matches the `Output` type in the return type. This is + just like other blocks you have seen. - The new function body is an `async move` block because of how it uses the - `url` parameter. (We’ll talk much more about `async` versus `async move` later - in the chapter.) + `url` parameter. (We’ll talk much more about `async` versus `async move` + later in the chapter.) Now we can call `page_title` in `main`. -## Determining a Single Page’s Title +<!-- Old headings. Do not remove or links may break. --> -To start, we’ll just get the title for a single page. In Listing 17-3, we follow -the same pattern we used in Chapter 12 to get command line arguments in the -[Accepting Command Line Arguments][cli-args]<!-- ignore --> section. Then we -pass the first URL `page_title` and await the result. Because the value -produced by the future is an `Option<String>`, we use a `match` expression to -print different messages to account for whether the page had a `<title>`. +<a id ="determining-a-single-pages-title"></a> + +### Executing an Async Function with a Runtime + +To start, we’ll get the title for a single page, shown in Listing 17-3. +Unfortunately, this code doesn’t compile yet. <Listing number="17-3" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Calling the `page_title` function from `main` with a user-supplied argument"> @@ -208,9 +208,15 @@ print different messages to account for whether the page had a `<title>`. </Listing> -Unfortunately, this code doesn’t compile. The only place we can use the `await` -keyword is in async functions or blocks, and Rust won’t let us mark the -special `main` function as `async`. +We follow the same pattern we used to get command line arguments in the +[“Accepting Command Line Arguments”][cli-args]<!-- ignore --> section in +Chapter 12. Then we pass the URL argument to `page_title` and await the result. +Because the value produced by the future is an `Option<String>`, we use a +`match` expression to print different messages to account for whether the page +had a `<title>`. + +The only place we can use the `await` keyword is in async functions or blocks, +and Rust won’t let us mark the special `main` function as `async`. <!-- manual-regeneration cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-03 @@ -231,7 +237,7 @@ a Rust crate that manages the details of executing asynchronous code. A program’s `main` function can _initialize_ a runtime, but it’s not a runtime _itself_. (We’ll see more about why this is the case in a bit.) Every Rust program that executes async code has at least one place where it sets up a -runtime and executes the futures. +runtime that executes the futures. Most languages that support async bundle a runtime, but Rust does not. Instead, there are many different async runtimes available, each of which makes different @@ -241,20 +247,22 @@ needs than a microcontroller with a single core, a small amount of RAM, and no heap allocation ability. The crates that provide those runtimes also often supply async versions of common functionality such as file or network I/O. -Here, and throughout the rest of this chapter, we’ll use the `run` function from -the `trpl` crate, which takes a future as an argument and runs it to completion. -Behind the scenes, calling `run` sets up a runtime that’s used to run the future -passed in. Once the future completes, `run` returns whatever value the future -produced. +Here, and throughout the rest of this chapter, we’ll use the `block_on` +function from the `trpl` crate, which takes a future as an argument and blocks +the current thread until this future runs to completion. Behind the scenes, +calling `block_on` sets up a runtime using the `tokio` crate that’s used to run +the future passed in (the `trpl` crate’s `block_on` behavior is similar to +other runtime crates’ `block_on` functions). Once the future completes, +`block_on` returns whatever value the future produced. -We could pass the future returned by `page_title` directly to `run`, and once it -completed, we could match on the resulting `Option<String>`, as -we tried to do in Listing 17-3. However, for most of the examples in the chapter -(and most async code in the real world), we’ll be doing more than just one -async function call, so instead we’ll pass an `async` block and explicitly -await the result of the `page_title` call, as in Listing 17-4. +We could pass the future returned by `page_title` directly to `block_on` and, +once it completed, we could match on the resulting `Option<String>` as we tried +to do in Listing 17-3. However, for most of the examples in the chapter (and +most async code in the real world), we’ll be doing more than just one async +function call, so instead we’ll pass an `async` block and explicitly await the +result of the `page_title` call, as in Listing 17-4. -<Listing number="17-4" caption="Awaiting an async block with `trpl::run`" file-name="src/main.rs"> +<Listing number="17-4" caption="Awaiting an async block with `trpl::block_on`" file-name="src/main.rs"> <!-- should_panic,noplayground because mdbook test does not pass args --> @@ -269,27 +277,27 @@ When we run this code, we get the behavior we expected initially: <!-- manual-regeneration cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-04 cargo build # skip all the build noise -cargo run https://www.rust-lang.org +cargo run -- "https://www.rust-lang.org" # copy the output here --> ```console -$ cargo run -- https://www.rust-lang.org +$ cargo run -- "https://www.rust-lang.org" Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.05s Running `target/debug/async_await 'https://www.rust-lang.org'` The title for https://www.rust-lang.org was Rust Programming Language ``` -Phew—we finally have some working async code! But before we add the code to race -the two sites against each other, let’s briefly turn our attention back to how +Phew—we finally have some working async code! But before we add the code to +race two sites against each other, let’s briefly turn our attention back to how futures work. Each _await point_—that is, every place where the code uses the `await` -keyword—represents a place where control is handed back to the runtime. To -make that work, Rust needs to keep track of the state involved in the async -block so that the runtime can kick off some other work and then come back when -it’s ready to try advancing the first one again. This is an invisible state machine, +keyword—represents a place where control is handed back to the runtime. To make +that work, Rust needs to keep track of the state involved in the async block so +that the runtime could kick off some other work and then come back when it’s +ready to try advancing the first one again. This is an invisible state machine, as if you’d written an enum like this to save the current state at each await point: @@ -301,35 +309,39 @@ Writing the code to transition between each state by hand would be tedious and error-prone, however, especially when you need to add more functionality and more states to the code later. Fortunately, the Rust compiler creates and manages the state machine data structures for async code automatically. The -normal borrowing and ownership rules around data structures all still apply, and -happily, the compiler also handles checking those for us and provides useful -error messages. We’ll work through a few of those later in the chapter. +normal borrowing and ownership rules around data structures all still apply, +and happily, the compiler also handles checking those for us and provides +useful error messages. We’ll work through a few of those later in the chapter. -Ultimately, something has to execute this state machine, and that something is a -runtime. (This is why you may come across references to _executors_ -when looking into runtimes: an executor is the part of a runtime responsible for +Ultimately, something has to execute this state machine, and that something is +a runtime. (This is why you may come across mentions of _executors_ when +looking into runtimes: an executor is the part of a runtime responsible for executing the async code.) Now you can see why the compiler stopped us from making `main` itself an async function back in Listing 17-3. If `main` were an async function, something else would need to manage the state machine for whatever future `main` returned, but -`main` is the starting point for the program! Instead, we called the `trpl::run` -function in `main` to set up a runtime and run the future returned by the -`async` block until it is done. +`main` is the starting point for the program! Instead, we called the +`trpl::block_on` function in `main` to set up a runtime and run the future +returned by the `async` block until it’s done. > Note: Some runtimes provide macros so you _can_ write an async `main` > function. Those macros rewrite `async fn main() { ... }` to be a normal `fn > main`, which does the same thing we did by hand in Listing 17-4: call a -> function that runs a future to completion the way `trpl::run` does. +> function that runs a future to completion the way `trpl::block_on` does. Now let’s put these pieces together and see how we can write concurrent code. -### Racing Our Two URLs Against Each Other +<!-- Old headings. Do not remove or links may break. --> + +<a id="racing-our-two-urls-against-each-other"></a> + +### Racing Two URLs Against Each Other Concurrently In Listing 17-5, we call `page_title` with two different URLs passed in from the -command line and race them. +command line and race them by selecting whichever future finishes first. -<Listing number="17-5" caption="" file-name="src/main.rs"> +<Listing number="17-5" caption="Calling `page_title` for two URLs to see which returns first" file-name="src/main.rs"> <!-- should_panic,noplayground because mdbook does not pass args --> @@ -339,19 +351,19 @@ command line and race them. </Listing> -We begin by calling `page_title` for each of the user-supplied URLs. We save the -resulting futures as `title_fut_1` and `title_fut_2`. Remember, these don’t do -anything yet, because futures are lazy and we haven’t yet awaited them. Then we -pass the futures to `trpl::race`, which returns a value to indicate which of the -futures passed to it finishes first. +We begin by calling `page_title` for each of the user-supplied URLs. We save +the resulting futures as `title_fut_1` and `title_fut_2`. Remember, these don’t +do anything yet, because futures are lazy and we haven’t yet awaited them. Then +we pass the futures to `trpl::select`, which returns a value to indicate which +of the futures passed to it finishes first. -> Note: Under the hood, `race` is built on a more general function, `select`, -> which you will encounter more often in real-world Rust code. A `select` -> function can do a lot of things that the `trpl::race` function can’t, but it -> also has some additional complexity that we can skip over for now. +> Note: Under the hood, `trpl::select` is built on a more general `select` +> function defined in the `futures` crate. The `futures` crate’s `select` +> function can do a lot of things that the `trpl::select` function can’t, but +> it also has some additional complexity that we can skip over for now. Either future can legitimately “win,” so it doesn’t make sense to return a -`Result`. Instead, `race` returns a type we haven’t seen before, +`Result`. Instead, `trpl::select` returns a type we haven’t seen before, `trpl::Either`. The `Either` type is somewhat similar to a `Result` in that it has two cases. Unlike `Result`, though, there is no notion of success or failure baked into `Either`. Instead, it uses `Left` and `Right` to indicate @@ -364,21 +376,20 @@ enum Either<A, B> { } ``` -The `race` function returns `Left` with the output from the first future -argument it finishes first, or `Right` with the output of the second future -argument if that one finishes first. This matches the order the arguments appear -in when calling the function: the first argument is to the left of the second -argument. +The `select` function returns `Left` with that future’s output if the first +argument wins, and `Right` with the second future argument’s output if _that_ +one wins. This matches the order the arguments appear in when calling the +function: the first argument is to the left of the second argument. -We also update `page_title` to return the same URL passed in. That way, if -the page that returns first does not have a `<title>` we can resolve, we can -still print a meaningful message. With that information available, we wrap up by +We also update `page_title` to return the same URL passed in. That way, if the +page that returns first does not have a `<title>` we can resolve, we can still +print a meaningful message. With that information available, we wrap up by updating our `println!` output to indicate both which URL finished first and what, if any, the `<title>` is for the web page at that URL. You have built a small working web scraper now! Pick a couple URLs and run the -command line tool. You may discover that some sites are consistently faster than -others, while in other cases the faster site varies from run to run. More +command line tool. You may discover that some sites are consistently faster +than others, while in other cases the faster site varies from run to run. More importantly, you’ve learned the basics of working with futures, so now we can dig deeper into what we can do with async. diff --git a/src/ch17-02-concurrency-with-async.md b/src/ch17-02-concurrency-with-async.md index 36343f15a3..9e6258bcce 100644 --- a/src/ch17-02-concurrency-with-async.md +++ b/src/ch17-02-concurrency-with-async.md @@ -1,11 +1,11 @@ -## Applying Concurrency with Async - <!-- Old headings. Do not remove or links may break. --> <a id="concurrency-with-async"></a> +## Applying Concurrency with Async + In this section, we’ll apply async to some of the same concurrency challenges -we tackled with threads in chapter 16. Because we already talked about a lot of +we tackled with threads in Chapter 16. Because we already talked about a lot of the key ideas there, in this section we’ll focus on what’s different between threads and futures. @@ -21,12 +21,12 @@ characteristics. ### Creating a New Task with `spawn_task` -The first operation we tackled in [Creating a New Thread with -Spawn][thread-spawn]<!-- ignore --> was counting up on two separate threads. -Let’s do the same using async. The `trpl` crate supplies a `spawn_task` function -that looks very similar to the `thread::spawn` API, and a `sleep` function -that is an async version of the `thread::sleep` API. We can use these together -to implement the counting example, as shown in Listing 17-6. +The first operation we tackled in the [“Creating a New Thread with +`spawn`”][thread-spawn]<!-- ignore --> section in Chapter 16 was counting up on +two separate threads. Let’s do the same using async. The `trpl` crate supplies +a `spawn_task` function that looks very similar to the `thread::spawn` API, and +a `sleep` function that is an async version of the `thread::sleep` API. We can +use these together to implement the counting example, as shown in Listing 17-6. <Listing number="17-6" caption="Creating a new task to print one thing while the main task prints something else" file-name="src/main.rs"> @@ -36,15 +36,15 @@ to implement the counting example, as shown in Listing 17-6. </Listing> -As our starting point, we set up our `main` function with `trpl::run` so that -our top-level function can be async. +As our starting point, we set up our `main` function with `trpl::block_on` so +that our top-level function can be async. > Note: From this point forward in the chapter, every example will include this -> exact same wrapping code with `trpl::run` in `main`, so we’ll often skip it -> just as we do with `main`. Don’t forget to include it in your code! +> exact same wrapping code with `trpl::block_on` in `main`, so we’ll often skip it +> just as we do with `main`. Remember to include it in your code! -Then we write two loops within that block, each containing a `trpl::sleep` call, -which waits for half a second (500 milliseconds) before sending the next +Then we write two loops within that block, each containing a `trpl::sleep` +call, which waits for half a second (500 milliseconds) before sending the next message. We put one loop in the body of a `trpl::spawn_task` and the other in a top-level `for` loop. We also add an `await` after the `sleep` calls. @@ -68,14 +68,14 @@ hi number 4 from the second task! hi number 5 from the first task! ``` -This version stops as soon as the `for` loop in the body of the main async block -finishes, because the task spawned by `spawn_task` is shut down when the `main` -function ends. If you want it to run all the way to the task’s completion, you -will need to use a join handle to wait for the first task to complete. With -threads, we used the `join` method to “block” until the thread was done running. -In Listing 17-7, we can use `await` to do the same thing, because the task -handle itself is a future. Its `Output` type is a `Result`, so we also unwrap it -after awaiting it. +This version stops as soon as the `for` loop in the body of the main async +block finishes, because the task spawned by `spawn_task` is shut down when the +`main` function ends. If you want it to run all the way to the task’s +completion, you will need to use a join handle to wait for the first task to +complete. With threads, we used the `join` method to “block” until the thread +was done running. In Listing 17-7, we can use `await` to do the same thing, +because the task handle itself is a future. Its `Output` type is a `Result`, so +we also unwrap it after awaiting it. <Listing number="17-7" caption="Using `await` with a join handle to run a task to completion" file-name="src/main.rs"> @@ -85,7 +85,7 @@ after awaiting it. </Listing> -This updated version runs until _both_ loops finish. +This updated version runs until _both_ loops finish: <!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant; the changes are likely to be due to the threads running differently rather than @@ -107,9 +107,9 @@ hi number 8 from the first task! hi number 9 from the first task! ``` -So far, it looks like async and threads give us the same basic outcomes, just -with different syntax: using `await` instead of calling `join` on the join -handle, and awaiting the `sleep` calls. +So far, it looks like async and threads give us similar outcomes, just with +different syntax: using `await` instead of calling `join` on the join handle, +and awaiting the `sleep` calls. The bigger difference is that we didn’t need to spawn another operating system thread to do this. In fact, we don’t even need to spawn a task here. Because @@ -117,15 +117,15 @@ async blocks compile to anonymous futures, we can put each loop in an async block and have the runtime run them both to completion using the `trpl::join` function. -In the section [Waiting for All Threads to Finishing Using `join` -Handles][join-handles]<!-- ignore -->, we showed how to use the `join` method on -the `JoinHandle` type returned when you call `std::thread::spawn`. The -`trpl::join` function is similar, but for futures. When you give it two futures, -it produces a single new future whose output is a tuple containing the output of -each future you passed in once they _both_ complete. Thus, in Listing 17-8, we -use `trpl::join` to wait for both `fut1` and `fut2` to finish. We do _not_ await -`fut1` and `fut2` but instead the new future produced by `trpl::join`. We ignore -the output, because it’s just a tuple containing two unit values. +In the [“Waiting for All Threads to Finish”][join-handles]<!-- ignore --> +section in Chapter 16, we showed how to use the `join` method on the +`JoinHandle` type returned when you call `std::thread::spawn`. The `trpl::join` +function is similar, but for futures. When you give it two futures, it produces +a single new future whose output is a tuple containing the output of each +future you passed in once they _both_ complete. Thus, in Listing 17-8, we use +`trpl::join` to wait for both `fut1` and `fut2` to finish. We do _not_ await +`fut1` and `fut2` but instead the new future produced by `trpl::join`. We +ignore the output, because it’s just a tuple containing two unit values. <Listing number="17-8" caption="Using `trpl::join` to await two anonymous futures" file-name="src/main.rs"> @@ -158,16 +158,17 @@ hi number 9 from the first task! ``` Now, you’ll see the exact same order every time, which is very different from -what we saw with threads. That is because the `trpl::join` function is _fair_, -meaning it checks each future equally often, alternating between them, and never -lets one race ahead if the other is ready. With threads, the operating system -decides which thread to check and how long to let it run. With async Rust, the -runtime decides which task to check. (In practice, the details get complicated -because an async runtime might use operating system threads under the hood as -part of how it manages concurrency, so guaranteeing fairness can be more work -for a runtime—but it’s still possible!) Runtimes don’t have to guarantee -fairness for any given operation, and they often offer different APIs to let you -choose whether or not you want fairness. +what we saw with threads and with `trpl::spawn_task` in Listing 17-7. That is +because the `trpl::join` function is _fair_, meaning it checks each future +equally often, alternating between them, and never lets one race ahead if the +other is ready. With threads, the operating system decides which thread to +check and how long to let it run. With async Rust, the runtime decides which +task to check. (In practice, the details get complicated because an async +runtime might use operating system threads under the hood as part of how it +manages concurrency, so guaranteeing fairness can be more work for a +runtime—but it’s still possible!) Runtimes don’t have to guarantee fairness for +any given operation, and they often offer different APIs to let you choose +whether or not you want fairness. Try some of these variations on awaiting the futures and see what they do: @@ -182,16 +183,17 @@ each case _before_ running the code! <!-- Old headings. Do not remove or links may break. --> <a id="message-passing"></a> +<a id="counting-up-on-two-tasks-using-message-passing"></a> -### Counting Up on Two Tasks Using Message Passing +### Sending Data Between Two Tasks Using Message Passing Sharing data between futures will also be familiar: we’ll use message passing again, but this time with async versions of the types and functions. We’ll take -a slightly different path than we did in [Using Message Passing to Transfer Data -Between Threads][message-passing-threads]<!-- ignore --> to illustrate some of -the key differences between thread-based and futures-based concurrency. In -Listing 17-9, we’ll begin with just a single async block—_not_ spawning a -separate task as we spawned a separate thread. +a slightly different path than we did in the [“Transfer Data Between Threads +with Message Passing”][message-passing-threads]<!-- ignore --> section in +Chapter 16 to illustrate some of the key differences between thread-based and +futures-based concurrency. In Listing 17-9, we’ll begin with just a single +async block—_not_ spawning a separate task as we spawned a separate thread. <Listing number="17-9" caption="Creating an async channel and assigning the two halves to `tx` and `rx`" file-name="src/main.rs"> @@ -205,29 +207,29 @@ Here, we use `trpl::channel`, an async version of the multiple-producer, single-consumer channel API we used with threads back in Chapter 16. The async version of the API is only a little different from the thread-based version: it uses a mutable rather than an immutable receiver `rx`, and its `recv` method -produces a future we need to await rather than producing the value directly. Now -we can send messages from the sender to the receiver. Notice that we don’t have -to spawn a separate thread or even a task; we merely need to await the `rx.recv` -call. - -The synchronous `Receiver::recv` method in `std::mpsc::channel` blocks until -it receives a message. The `trpl::Receiver::recv` method does not, because it -is async. Instead of blocking, it hands control back to the runtime until either -a message is received or the send side of the channel closes. By contrast, we +produces a future we need to await rather than producing the value directly. +Now we can send messages from the sender to the receiver. Notice that we don’t +have to spawn a separate thread or even a task; we merely need to await the +`rx.recv` call. + +The synchronous `Receiver::recv` method in `std::mpsc::channel` blocks until it +receives a message. The `trpl::Receiver::recv` method does not, because it is +async. Instead of blocking, it hands control back to the runtime until either a +message is received or the send side of the channel closes. By contrast, we don’t await the `send` call, because it doesn’t block. It doesn’t need to, because the channel we’re sending it into is unbounded. -> Note: Because all of this async code runs in an async block in a `trpl::run` -> call, everything within it can avoid blocking. However, the code _outside_ it -> will block on the `run` function returning. That’s the whole point of the -> `trpl::run` function: it lets you _choose_ where to block on some set of async -> code, and thus where to transition between sync and async code. In most async -> runtimes, `run` is actually named `block_on` for exactly this reason. +> Note: Because all of this async code runs in an async block in a +> `trpl::block_on` call, everything within it can avoid blocking. However, the +> code _outside_ it will block on the `block_on` function returning. That’s the +> whole point of the `trpl::block_on` function: it lets you _choose_ where to +> block on some set of async code, and thus where to transition between sync +> and async code. -Notice two things about this example. First, the message will arrive right away. -Second, although we use a future here, there’s no concurrency yet. Everything -in the listing happens in sequence, just as it would if there were no futures -involved. +Notice two things about this example. First, the message will arrive right +away. Second, although we use a future here, there’s no concurrency yet. +Everything in the listing happens in sequence, just as it would if there were +no futures involved. Let’s address the first part by sending a series of messages and sleeping in between them, as shown in Listing 17-10. @@ -249,16 +251,17 @@ be waiting on some _unknown_ number of messages, so we need to keep waiting until we determine that there are no more messages. In Listing 16-10, we used a `for` loop to process all the items received from a -synchronous channel. Rust doesn’t yet have a way to write a `for` loop over an -_asynchronous_ series of items, however, so we need to use a loop we haven’t -seen before: the `while let` conditional loop. This is the loop version of the -`if let` construct we saw back in the section [Concise Control Flow with `if -let` and `let else`][if-let]<!-- ignore -->. The loop will continue executing as -long as the pattern it specifies continues to match the value. - -The `rx.recv` call produces a future, which we await. The runtime will pause the -future until it is ready. Once a message arrives, the future will resolve to -`Some(message)` as many times as a message arrives. When the channel closes, +synchronous channel. Rust doesn’t yet have a way to use a `for` loop with an +_asynchronously produced_ series of items, however, so we need to use a loop we +haven’t seen before: the `while let` conditional loop. This is the loop version +of the `if let` construct we saw back in the [“Concise Control Flow with `if +let` and `let else`”][if-let]<!-- ignore --> section in Chapter 6. The loop +will continue executing as long as the pattern it specifies continues to match +the value. + +The `rx.recv` call produces a future, which we await. The runtime will pause +the future until it is ready. Once a message arrives, the future will resolve +to `Some(message)` as many times as a message arrives. When the channel closes, regardless of whether _any_ messages have arrived, the future will instead resolve to `None` to indicate that there are no more values and thus we should stop polling—that is, stop awaiting. @@ -269,12 +272,14 @@ use it in the loop body, just as we could with `if let`. If the result is `None`, the loop ends. Every time the loop completes, it hits the await point again, so the runtime pauses it again until another message arrives. -The code now successfully sends and receives all of the messages. Unfortunately, -there are still a couple of problems. For one thing, the messages do not arrive -at half-second intervals. They arrive all at once, 2 seconds (2,000 -milliseconds) after we start the program. For another, this program never exits! -Instead, it waits forever for new messages. You will need to shut it down using -<span class="keystroke">ctrl-c</span>. +The code now successfully sends and receives all of the messages. +Unfortunately, there are still a couple of problems. For one thing, the +messages do not arrive at half-second intervals. They arrive all at once, 2 +seconds (2,000 milliseconds) after we start the program. For another, this +program also never exits! Instead, it waits forever for new messages. You will +need to shut it down using <kbd>ctrl</kbd>-<kbd>C</kbd>. + +#### Code Within One Async Block Executes Linearly Let’s start by examining why the messages come in all at once after the full delay, rather than coming in with delays between each one. Within a given async @@ -284,16 +289,16 @@ in which they’re executed when the program runs. There’s only one async block in Listing 17-10, so everything in it runs linearly. There’s still no concurrency. All the `tx.send` calls happen, interspersed with all of the `trpl::sleep` calls and their associated await -points. Only then does the `while let` loop get to go through any of the `await` -points on the `recv` calls. +points. Only then does the `while let` loop get to go through any of the +`await` points on the `recv` calls. -To get the behavior we want, where the sleep delay happens between each message, -we need to put the `tx` and `rx` operations in their own async blocks, as shown -in Listing 17-11. Then the runtime can execute each of them separately using -`trpl::join`, just as in the counting example. Once again, we await the result -of calling `trpl::join`, not the individual futures. If we awaited the -individual futures in sequence, we would just end up back in a sequential -flow—exactly what we’re trying _not_ to do. +To get the behavior we want, where the sleep delay happens between each +message, we need to put the `tx` and `rx` operations in their own async blocks, +as shown in Listing 17-11. Then the runtime can execute each of them separately +using `trpl::join`, just as in Listing 17-8. Once again, we await the result of +calling `trpl::join`, not the individual futures. If we awaited the individual +futures in sequence, we would just end up back in a sequential flow—exactly +what we’re trying _not_ to do. <!-- We cannot test this one because it never stops! --> @@ -308,44 +313,41 @@ flow—exactly what we’re trying _not_ to do. With the updated code in Listing 17-11, the messages get printed at 500-millisecond intervals, rather than all in a rush after 2 seconds. +#### Moving Ownership Into an Async Block + The program still never exits, though, because of the way the `while let` loop interacts with `trpl::join`: - The future returned from `trpl::join` completes only once _both_ futures passed to it have completed. -- The `tx` future completes once it finishes sleeping after sending the last +- The `tx_fut` future completes once it finishes sleeping after sending the last message in `vals`. -- The `rx` future won’t complete until the `while let` loop ends. +- The `rx_fut` future won’t complete until the `while let` loop ends. - The `while let` loop won’t end until awaiting `rx.recv` produces `None`. - Awaiting `rx.recv` will return `None` only once the other end of the channel is closed. - The channel will close only if we call `rx.close` or when the sender side, `tx`, is dropped. - We don’t call `rx.close` anywhere, and `tx` won’t be dropped until the - outermost async block passed to `trpl::run` ends. + outermost async block passed to `trpl::block_on` ends. - The block can’t end because it is blocked on `trpl::join` completing, which takes us back to the top of this list. -We could manually close `rx` by calling `rx.close` somewhere, but that doesn’t -make much sense. Stopping after handling some arbitrary number of messages would -make the program shut down, but we could miss messages. We need some other way -to make sure that `tx` gets dropped _before_ the end of the function. - -Right now, the async block where we send the messages only borrows `tx` because -sending a message doesn’t require ownership, but if we could move `tx` into that -async block, it would be dropped once that block ends. In the Chapter 13 section -[Capturing References or Moving Ownership][capture-or-move]<!-- ignore -->, you -learned how to use the `move` keyword with closures, and, as discussed in the -Chapter 16 section [Using `move` Closures with Threads][move-threads]<!-- ignore --->, we often need to move data into closures when working with threads. The -same basic dynamics apply to async blocks, so the `move` keyword works with -async blocks just as it does with closures. +Right now, the async block where we send the messages only _borrows_ `tx` +because sending a message doesn’t require ownership, but if we could _move_ +`tx` into that async block, it would be dropped once that block ends. In the +[“Capturing References or Moving Ownership”][capture-or-move]<!-- ignore --> +section in Chapter 13, you learned how to use the `move` keyword with closures, +and, as discussed in the [“Using `move` Closures with +Threads”][move-threads]<!-- ignore --> section in Chapter 16, we often need to +move data into closures when working with threads. The same basic dynamics +apply to async blocks, so the `move` keyword works with async blocks just as it +does with closures. In Listing 17-12, we change the block used to send messages from `async` to -`async move`. When we run _this_ version of the code, it shuts down gracefully -after the last message is sent and received. +`async move`. -<Listing number="17-12" caption="A revision of the code from Listing 17-11 that correctly shuts down when complete" file-name="src/main.rs"> +<Listing number="17-12" caption="A revision of the code from Listing 17-11 that correctly shuts down when complete" file-name="src/main.rs"> ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-12/src/main.rs:with-move}} @@ -353,6 +355,12 @@ after the last message is sent and received. </Listing> +When we run _this_ version of the code, it shuts down gracefully after the last +message is sent and received. Next, let’s see what would need to change to send +data from more than one future. + +#### Joining a Number of Futures with the `join!` Macro + This async channel is also a multiple-producer channel, so we can call `clone` on `tx` if we want to send messages from multiple futures, as shown in Listing 17-13. @@ -374,12 +382,16 @@ the order in which the futures are awaited, not in which they’re created. Both of the async blocks for sending messages need to be `async move` blocks so that both `tx` and `tx1` get dropped when those blocks finish. Otherwise, we’ll -end up back in the same infinite loop we started out in. Finally, we switch from -`trpl::join` to `trpl::join3` to handle the additional future. +end up back in the same infinite loop we started out in. + +Finally, we switch from `trpl::join` to `trpl::join!` to handle the additional +future: the `join!` macro awaits an arbitrary number of futures where we know +the number of futures at compile time. We’ll discuss awaiting a collection of +an unknown number of futures later in this chapter. Now we see all the messages from both sending futures, and because the sending futures use slightly different delays after sending, the messages are also -received at those different intervals. +received at those different intervals: <!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant; the changes are likely to be due to the threads running differently rather than @@ -396,11 +408,13 @@ received 'for' received 'you' ``` -This is a good start, but it limits us to just a handful of futures: two with -`join`, or three with `join3`. Let’s see how we might work with more futures. +We’ve explored how to use message passing to send data between futures, how +code within an async block runs sequentially, how to move ownership into an +async block, and how to join multiple futures. Next, let’s discuss how and why +to tell the runtime it can switch to another task. [thread-spawn]: ch16-01-threads.html#creating-a-new-thread-with-spawn -[join-handles]: ch16-01-threads.html#waiting-for-all-threads-to-finish-using-join-handles +[join-handles]: ch16-01-threads.html#waiting-for-all-threads-to-finish [message-passing-threads]: ch16-02-message-passing.html [if-let]: ch06-03-if-let.html [capture-or-move]: ch13-01-closures.html#capturing-references-or-moving-ownership diff --git a/src/ch17-03-more-futures.md b/src/ch17-03-more-futures.md index 10bfdf1b62..42d58bbc94 100644 --- a/src/ch17-03-more-futures.md +++ b/src/ch17-03-more-futures.md @@ -1,321 +1,15 @@ -## Working with Any Number of Futures -When we switched from using two futures to three in the previous section, we -also had to switch from using `join` to using `join3`. It would be annoying to -have to call a different function every time we changed the number of futures we -wanted to join. Happily, we have a macro form of `join` to which we can pass an -arbitrary number of arguments. It also handles awaiting the futures itself. -Thus, we could rewrite the code from Listing 17-13 to use `join!` instead of -`join3`, as in Listing 17-14. - -<Listing number="17-14" caption="Using `join!` to wait for multiple futures" file-name="src/main.rs"> - -```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-14/src/main.rs:here}} -``` - -</Listing> - -This is definitely an improvement over swapping between `join` and -`join3` and `join4` and so on! However, even this macro form only works -when we know the number of futures ahead of time. In real-world Rust, -though, pushing futures into a collection and then waiting on some or -all the futures of them to complete is a common pattern. - -To check all the futures in some collection, we’ll need to iterate over and -join on _all_ of them. The `trpl::join_all` function accepts any type that -implements the `Iterator` trait, which you learned about back in [The Iterator -Trait and the `next` Method][iterator-trait]<!-- ignore --> Chapter 13, so -it seems like just the ticket. Let’s try putting our futures in a vector and -replacing `join!` with `join_all` as shown in Listing 17-15. - -<Listing number="17-15" caption="Storing anonymous futures in a vector and calling `join_all`"> - -```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-15/src/main.rs:here}} -``` - -</Listing> - -Unfortunately, this code doesn’t compile. Instead, we get this error: - -<!-- manual-regeneration -cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-15/ -cargo build -copy just the compiler error ---> - -```text -error[E0308]: mismatched types - --> src/main.rs:45:37 - | -10 | let tx1_fut = async move { - | ---------- the expected `async` block -... -24 | let rx_fut = async { - | ----- the found `async` block -... -45 | let futures = vec![tx1_fut, rx_fut, tx_fut]; - | ^^^^^^ expected `async` block, found a different `async` block - | - = note: expected `async` block `{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}` - found `async` block `{async block@src/main.rs:24:22: 24:27}` - = note: no two async blocks, even if identical, have the same type - = help: consider pinning your async block and casting it to a trait object -``` - -This might be surprising. After all, none of the async blocks returns anything, -so each one produces a `Future<Output = ()>`. Remember that `Future` is a trait, -though, and that the compiler creates a unique enum for each async block. You -can’t put two different hand-written structs in a `Vec`, and the same rule -applies to the different enums generated by the compiler. - -To make this work, we need to use _trait objects_, just as we did in [“Returning -Errors from the run function”][dyn]<!-- ignore --> in Chapter 12. (We’ll cover -trait objects in detail in Chapter 18.) Using trait objects lets us treat each -of the anonymous futures produced by these types as the same type, because all -of them implement the `Future` trait. - -> Note: In [Using an Enum to Store Multiple Values][enum-alt]<!-- ignore --> in -> Chapter 8, we discussed another way to include multiple types in a `Vec`: -> using an enum to represent each type that can appear in the vector. We can’t -> do that here, though. For one thing, we have no way to name the different -> types, because they are anonymous. For another, the reason we reached for a -> vector and `join_all` in the first place was to be able to work with a dynamic -> collection of futures where we only care that they have the same output type. - -We start by wrapping each future in the `vec!` in a `Box::new`, as shown in -Listing 17-16. - -<Listing number="17-16" caption="Using `Box::new` to align the types of the futures in a `Vec`" file-name="src/main.rs"> - -```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-16/src/main.rs:here}} -``` - -</Listing> - -Unfortunately, this code still doesn’t compile. In fact, we get the same basic -error we got before for both the second and third `Box::new` calls, as well as -new errors referring to the `Unpin` trait. We’ll come back to the `Unpin` errors -in a moment. First, let’s fix the type errors on the `Box::new` calls by -explicitly annotating the type of the `futures` variable (see Listing 17-17). - -<Listing number="17-17" caption="Fixing the rest of the type mismatch errors by using an explicit type declaration" file-name="src/main.rs"> - -```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/src/main.rs:here}} -``` - -</Listing> - -This type declaration is a little involved, so let’s walk through it: - -1. The innermost type is the future itself. We note explicitly that the output - of the future is the unit type `()` by writing `Future<Output = ()>`. -2. Then we annotate the trait with `dyn` to mark it as dynamic. -3. The entire trait reference is wrapped in a `Box`. -4. Finally, we state explicitly that `futures` is a `Vec` containing these - items. - -That already made a big difference. Now when we run the compiler, we get only -the errors mentioning `Unpin`. Although there are three of them, their contents -are very similar. - -<!-- manual-regeneration -cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17 -cargo build -# copy *only* the errors -# fix the paths ---> - -```text -error[E0277]: `dyn Future<Output = ()>` cannot be unpinned - --> src/main.rs:49:24 - | -49 | trpl::join_all(futures).await; - | -------------- ^^^^^^^ the trait `Unpin` is not implemented for `dyn Future<Output = ()>` - | | - | required by a bound introduced by this call - | - = note: consider using the `pin!` macro - consider using `Box::pin` if you need to access the pinned value outside of the current scope - = note: required for `Box<dyn Future<Output = ()>>` to implement `Future` -note: required by a bound in `join_all` - --> file:///home/.cargo/registry/src/index.crates.io-1949cf8c6b5b557f/futures-util-0.3.30/src/future/join_all.rs:105:14 - | -102 | pub fn join_all<I>(iter: I) -> JoinAll<I::Item> - | -------- required by a bound in this function -... -105 | I::Item: Future, - | ^^^^^^ required by this bound in `join_all` - -error[E0277]: `dyn Future<Output = ()>` cannot be unpinned - --> src/main.rs:49:9 - | -49 | trpl::join_all(futures).await; - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ the trait `Unpin` is not implemented for `dyn Future<Output = ()>` - | - = note: consider using the `pin!` macro - consider using `Box::pin` if you need to access the pinned value outside of the current scope - = note: required for `Box<dyn Future<Output = ()>>` to implement `Future` -note: required by a bound in `futures_util::future::join_all::JoinAll` - --> file:///home/.cargo/registry/src/index.crates.io-1949cf8c6b5b557f/futures-util-0.3.30/src/future/join_all.rs:29:8 - | -27 | pub struct JoinAll<F> - | ------- required by a bound in this struct -28 | where -29 | F: Future, - | ^^^^^^ required by this bound in `JoinAll` - -error[E0277]: `dyn Future<Output = ()>` cannot be unpinned - --> src/main.rs:49:33 - | -49 | trpl::join_all(futures).await; - | ^^^^^ the trait `Unpin` is not implemented for `dyn Future<Output = ()>` - | - = note: consider using the `pin!` macro - consider using `Box::pin` if you need to access the pinned value outside of the current scope - = note: required for `Box<dyn Future<Output = ()>>` to implement `Future` -note: required by a bound in `futures_util::future::join_all::JoinAll` - --> file:///home/.cargo/registry/src/index.crates.io-1949cf8c6b5b557f/futures-util-0.3.30/src/future/join_all.rs:29:8 - | -27 | pub struct JoinAll<F> - | ------- required by a bound in this struct -28 | where -29 | F: Future, - | ^^^^^^ required by this bound in `JoinAll` - -For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0277`. -error: could not compile `async_await` (bin "async_await") due to 3 previous errors -``` - -That is a _lot_ to digest, so let’s pull it apart. The first part of the message -tell us that the first async block (`src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10`) does not -implement the `Unpin` trait and suggests using `pin!` or `Box::pin` to resolve -it. Later in the chapter, we’ll dig into a few more details about `Pin` and -`Unpin`. For the moment, though, we can just follow the compiler’s advice to get -unstuck. In Listing 17-18, we start by importing `Pin` from `std::pin`. Next we -update the type annotation for `futures`, with a `Pin` wrapping each `Box`. -Finally, we use `Box::pin` to pin the futures themselves. - -<Listing number="17-18" caption="Using `Pin` and `Box::pin` to make the `Vec` type check" file-name="src/main.rs"> - -```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-18/src/main.rs:here}} -``` - -</Listing> - -If we compile and run this, we finally get the output we hoped for: - -<!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant; -the changes are likely to be due to the threads running differently rather than -changes in the compiler --> - -```text -received 'hi' -received 'more' -received 'from' -received 'messages' -received 'the' -received 'for' -received 'future' -received 'you' -``` - -Phew! - -There’s a bit more to explore here. For one thing, using `Pin<Box<T>>` adds a -small amount of overhead from putting these futures on the heap with `Box`—and -we’re only doing that to get the types to line up. We don’t actually _need_ the -heap allocation, after all: these futures are local to this particular function. -As noted before, `Pin` is itself a wrapper type, so we can get the benefit of -having a single type in the `Vec`—the original reason we reached for -`Box`—without doing a heap allocation. We can use `Pin` directly with each -future, using the `std::pin::pin` macro. - -However, we must still be explicit about the type of the pinned reference; -otherwise, Rust will still not know to interpret these as dynamic trait objects, -which is what we need them to be in the `Vec`. We therefore add `pin` to our -list of imports from `std::pin`. Then we can `pin!` each future when we define -it and define `futures` as a `Vec` containing pinned mutable references to the -dynamic future type, as in Listing 17-19. - -<Listing number="17-19" caption="Using `Pin` directly with the `pin!` macro to avoid unnecessary heap allocations" file-name="src/main.rs"> - -```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-19/src/main.rs:here}} -``` - -</Listing> - -We got this far by ignoring the fact that we might have different `Output` -types. For example, in Listing 17-20, the anonymous future for `a` implements -`Future<Output = u32>`, the anonymous future for `b` implements `Future<Output = -&str>`, and the anonymous future for `c` implements `Future<Output = bool>`. - -<Listing number="17-20" caption="Three futures with distinct types" file-name="src/main.rs"> - -```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-20/src/main.rs:here}} -``` - -</Listing> - -We can use `trpl::join!` to await them, because it allows us to pass in multiple -future types and produces a tuple of those types. We _cannot_ use -`trpl::join_all`, because it requires all of the futures passed in to have the -same type. Remember, that error is what got us started on this adventure with -`Pin`! - -This is a fundamental tradeoff: we can either deal with a dynamic number of -futures with `join_all`, as long as they all have the same type, or we can deal -with a set number of futures with the `join` functions or the `join!` macro, -even if they have different types. This is the same scenario we’d face when -working with any other types in Rust. Futures are not special, even though we -have some nice syntax for working with them, and that’s a good thing. - -### Racing Futures - -When we “join” futures with the `join` family of functions and macros, we -require _all_ of them to finish before we move on. Sometimes, though, we only -need _some_ future from a set to finish before we move on—kind of similar to -racing one future against another. - -In Listing 17-21, we once again use `trpl::race` to run two futures, `slow` and -`fast`, against each other. - -<Listing number="17-21" caption="Using `race` to get the result of whichever future finishes first" file-name="src/main.rs"> +<!-- Old headings. Do not remove or links may break. --> -```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-21/src/main.rs:here}} -``` +<a id="yielding"></a> -</Listing> +### Yielding Control to the Runtime -Each future prints a message when it starts running, pauses for some amount of -time by calling and awaiting `sleep`, and then prints another message when it -finishes. Then we pass both `slow` and `fast` to `trpl::race` and wait for one -of them to finish. (The outcome here isn’t too surprising: `fast` wins.) Unlike -when we used `race` back in [“Our First Async Program”][async-program]<!-- -ignore -->, we just ignore the `Either` instance it returns here, because all of -the interesting behavior happens in the body of the async blocks. - -Notice that if you flip the order of the arguments to `race`, the order of the -“started” messages changes, even though the `fast` future always completes -first. That’s because the implementation of this particular `race` function is -not fair. It always runs the futures passed in as arguments in the order in -which they’re passed. Other implementations _are_ fair and will randomly choose -which future to poll first. Regardless of whether the implementation of race -we’re using is fair, though, _one_ of the futures will run up to the first -`await` in its body before another task can start. - -Recall from [Our First Async Program][async-program]<!-- ignore --> that at each -await point, Rust gives a runtime a chance to pause the task and switch to -another one if the future being awaited isn’t ready. The inverse is also true: -Rust _only_ pauses async blocks and hands control back to a runtime at an await -point. Everything between await points is synchronous. +Recall from the [“Our First Async Program”][async-program]<!-- ignore --> +section that at each await point, Rust gives a runtime a chance to pause the +task and switch to another one if the future being awaited isn’t ready. The +inverse is also true: Rust _only_ pauses async blocks and hands control back to +a runtime at an await point. Everything between await points is synchronous. That means if you do a bunch of work in an async block without an await point, that future will block any other futures from making progress. You may sometimes @@ -325,50 +19,38 @@ setup or long-running work, or if you have a future that will keep doing some particular task indefinitely, you’ll need to think about when and where to hand control back to the runtime. -By the same token, if you have long-running blocking operations, async can be a -useful tool for providing ways for different parts of the program to relate to -each other. - -But _how_ would you hand control back to the runtime in those cases? +Let’s simulate a long-running operation to illustrate the starvation problem, +then explore how to solve it. Listing 17-14 introduces a `slow` function. -<!-- Old headings. Do not remove or links may break. --> - -<a id="yielding"></a> - -### Yielding Control to the Runtime - -Let’s simulate a long-running operation. Listing 17-22 introduces a `slow` -function. - -<Listing number="17-22" caption="Using `thread::sleep` to simulate slow operations" file-name="src/main.rs"> +<Listing number="17-14" caption="Using `thread::sleep` to simulate slow operations" file-name="src/main.rs"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-22/src/main.rs:slow}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-14/src/main.rs:slow}} ``` </Listing> This code uses `std::thread::sleep` instead of `trpl::sleep` so that calling -`slow` will block the current thread for some number of milliseconds. We can use -`slow` to stand in for real-world operations that are both long-running and +`slow` will block the current thread for some number of milliseconds. We can +use `slow` to stand in for real-world operations that are both long-running and blocking. -In Listing 17-23, we use `slow` to emulate doing this kind of CPU-bound work in +In Listing 17-15, we use `slow` to emulate doing this kind of CPU-bound work in a pair of futures. -<Listing number="17-23" caption="Using `thread::sleep` to simulate slow operations" file-name="src/main.rs"> +<Listing number="17-15" caption="Calling `slow` to simulate running slow operations" file-name="src/main.rs"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-23/src/main.rs:slow-futures}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-15/src/main.rs:slow-futures}} ``` </Listing> -To begin, each future only hands control back to the runtime _after_ carrying -out a bunch of slow operations. If you run this code, you will see this output: +Each future hands control back to the runtime only _after_ carrying out a bunch +of slow operations. If you run this code, you will see this output: <!-- manual-regeneration -cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-23/ +cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-15/ cargo run copy just the output --> @@ -386,33 +68,34 @@ copy just the output 'a' finished. ``` -As with our earlier example, `race` still finishes as soon as `a` is done. -There’s no interleaving between the two futures, though. The `a` future does all +As with Listing 17-5 where we used `trpl::select` to race futures fetching two +URLs, `select` still finishes as soon as `a` is done. There’s no interleaving +between the calls to `slow` in the two futures, though. The `a` future does all of its work until the `trpl::sleep` call is awaited, then the `b` future does -all of its work until its own `trpl::sleep` call is awaited, and finally the `a` -future completes. To allow both futures to make progress between their slow +all of its work until its own `trpl::sleep` call is awaited, and finally the +`a` future completes. To allow both futures to make progress between their slow tasks, we need await points so we can hand control back to the runtime. That means we need something we can await! -We can already see this kind of handoff happening in Listing 17-23: if we +We can already see this kind of handoff happening in Listing 17-15: if we removed the `trpl::sleep` at the end of the `a` future, it would complete -without the `b` future running _at all_. Let’s try using the `sleep` function as -a starting point for letting operations switch off making progress, as shown in -Listing 17-24. +without the `b` future running _at all_. Let’s try using the `trpl::sleep` +function as a starting point for letting operations switch off making progress, +as shown in Listing 17-16. -<Listing number="17-24" caption="Using `sleep` to let operations switch off making progress" file-name="src/main.rs"> +<Listing number="17-16" caption="Using `trpl::sleep` to let operations switch off making progress" file-name="src/main.rs"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-24/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-16/src/main.rs:here}} ``` </Listing> -In Listing 17-24, we add `trpl::sleep` calls with await points between each call -to `slow`. Now the two futures’ work is interleaved: +We’ve added `trpl::sleep` calls with await points between each call to `slow`. +Now the two futures’ work is interleaved: <!-- manual-regeneration -cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-24 +cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-16 cargo run copy just the output --> @@ -437,13 +120,13 @@ whatever way makes the most sense to us. We don’t really want to _sleep_ here, though: we want to make progress as fast as we can. We just need to hand back control to the runtime. We can do that -directly, using the `yield_now` function. In Listing 17-25, we replace all those -`sleep` calls with `yield_now`. +directly, using the `trpl::yield_now` function. In Listing 17-17, we replace +all those `trpl::sleep` calls with `trpl::yield_now`. -<Listing number="17-25" caption="Using `yield_now` to let operations switch off making progress" file-name="src/main.rs"> +<Listing number="17-17" caption="Using `yield_now` to let operations switch off making progress" file-name="src/main.rs"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-25/src/main.rs:yields}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/src/main.rs:yields}} ``` </Listing> @@ -455,30 +138,12 @@ for example, will always sleep for at least a millisecond, even if we pass it a `Duration` of one nanosecond. Again, modern computers are _fast_: they can do a lot in one millisecond! -You can see this for yourself by setting up a little benchmark, such as the one -in Listing 17-26. (This isn’t an especially rigorous way to do performance -testing, but it suffices to show the difference here.) - -<Listing number="17-26" caption="Comparing the performance of `sleep` and `yield_now`" file-name="src/main.rs"> - -```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-26/src/main.rs:here}} -``` - -</Listing> - -Here, we skip all the status printing, pass a one-nanosecond `Duration` to -`trpl::sleep`, and let each future run by itself, with no switching between the -futures. Then we run for 1,000 iterations and see how long the future using -`trpl::sleep` takes compared to the future using `trpl::yield_now`. - -The version with `yield_now` is _way_ faster! - This means that async can be useful even for compute-bound tasks, depending on what else your program is doing, because it provides a useful tool for -structuring the relationships between different parts of the program. This is a -form of _cooperative multitasking_, where each future has the power to determine -when it hands over control via await points. Each future therefore also has the +structuring the relationships between different parts of the program (but at a +cost of the overhead of the async state machine). This is a form of +_cooperative multitasking_, where each future has the power to determine when +it hands over control via await points. Each future therefore also has the responsibility to avoid blocking for too long. In some Rust-based embedded operating systems, this is the _only_ kind of multitasking! @@ -498,13 +163,13 @@ build a `timeout` function with async building blocks we already have. When we’re done, the result will be another building block we could use to create still more async abstractions. -Listing 17-27 shows how we would expect this `timeout` to work with a slow +Listing 17-18 shows how we would expect this `timeout` to work with a slow future. -<Listing number="17-27" caption="Using our imagined `timeout` to run a slow operation with a time limit" file-name="src/main.rs"> +<Listing number="17-18" caption="Using our imagined `timeout` to run a slow operation with a time limit" file-name="src/main.rs"> -```rust,ignore -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-27/src/main.rs:here}} +```rust,ignore,does_not_compile +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-18/src/main.rs:here}} ``` </Listing> @@ -521,40 +186,42 @@ Let’s implement this! To begin, let’s think about the API for `timeout`: elapses first, the `Result` will be `Err` with the duration that the timeout waited for. -Listing 17-28 shows this declaration. +Listing 17-19 shows this declaration. <!-- This is not tested because it intentionally does not compile. --> -<Listing number="17-28" caption="Defining the signature of `timeout`" file-name="src/main.rs"> +<Listing number="17-19" caption="Defining the signature of `timeout`" file-name="src/main.rs"> -```rust,ignore -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-28/src/main.rs:declaration}} +```rust,ignore,does_not_compile +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-19/src/main.rs:declaration}} ``` </Listing> That satisfies our goals for the types. Now let’s think about the _behavior_ we need: we want to race the future passed in against the duration. We can use -`trpl::sleep` to make a timer future from the duration, and use `trpl::race` to -run that timer with the future the caller passes in. - -We also know that `race` is not fair, polling arguments in the order in which -they are passed. Thus, we pass `future_to_try` to `race` first so it gets a -chance to complete even if `max_time` is a very short duration. If -`future_to_try` finishes first, `race` will return `Left` with the output from -`future_to_try`. If `timer` finishes first, `race` will return `Right` with the -timer’s output of `()`. +`trpl::sleep` to make a timer future from the duration, and use `trpl::select` +to run that timer with the future the caller passes in. -In Listing 17-29, we match on the result of awaiting `trpl::race`. +In Listing 17-20, we implement `timeout` by matching on the result of awaiting +`trpl::select`. -<Listing number="17-29" caption="Defining `timeout` with `race` and `sleep`" file-name="src/main.rs"> +<Listing number="17-20" caption="Defining `timeout` with `select` and `sleep`" file-name="src/main.rs"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-29/src/main.rs:implementation}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-20/src/main.rs:implementation}} ``` </Listing> +The implementation of `trpl::select` is not fair: it always polls arguments in +the order in which they are passed (other `select` implementations will +randomly choose which argument to poll first). Thus, we pass `future_to_try` to +`select` first so it gets a chance to complete even if `max_time` is a very +short duration. If `future_to_try` finishes first, `select` will return `Left` +with the output from `future_to_try`. If `timer` finishes first, `select` will +return `Right` with the timer’s output of `()`. + If the `future_to_try` succeeds and we get a `Left(output)`, we return `Ok(output)`. If the sleep timer elapses instead and we get a `Right(())`, we ignore the `()` with `_` and return `Err(max_time)` instead. @@ -567,30 +234,16 @@ Failed after 2 seconds ``` Because futures compose with other futures, you can build really powerful tools -using smaller async building blocks. For example, you can use this same approach -to combine timeouts with retries, and in turn use those with operations such as -network calls (one of the examples from the beginning of the chapter). +using smaller async building blocks. For example, you can use this same +approach to combine timeouts with retries, and in turn use those with +operations such as network calls (such as those in Listing 17-5). In practice, you’ll usually work directly with `async` and `await`, and -secondarily with functions and macros such as `join`, `join_all`, `race`, and so -on. You’ll only need to reach for `pin` now and again to use futures with those -APIs. - -We’ve now seen a number of ways to work with multiple futures at the same -time. Up next, we’ll look at how we can work with multiple futures in a -sequence over time with _streams_. Here are a couple more things you might want -to consider first, though: - -- We used a `Vec` with `join_all` to wait for all of the futures in some group - to finish. How could you use a `Vec` to process a group of futures in - sequence instead? What are the tradeoffs of doing that? - -- Take a look at the `futures::stream::FuturesUnordered` type from the `futures` - crate. How would using it be different from using a `Vec`? (Don’t worry about - the fact that it’s from the `stream` part of the crate; it works just fine - with any collection of futures.) - -[dyn]: ch12-03-improving-error-handling-and-modularity.html -[enum-alt]: ch08-01-vectors.html#using-an-enum-to-store-multiple-types +secondarily with functions such as `select` and macros such as the `join!` +macro to control how the outermost futures are executed. + +We’ve now seen a number of ways to work with multiple futures at the same time. +Up next, we’ll look at how we can work with multiple futures in a sequence over +time with _streams_. + [async-program]: ch17-01-futures-and-syntax.html#our-first-async-program -[iterator-trait]: ch13-02-iterators.html#the-iterator-trait-and-the-next-method diff --git a/src/ch17-04-streams.md b/src/ch17-04-streams.md index 196da5ca1b..b7cb2f543f 100644 --- a/src/ch17-04-streams.md +++ b/src/ch17-04-streams.md @@ -1,65 +1,68 @@ -## Streams: Futures in Sequence - <!-- Old headings. Do not remove or links may break. --> <a id="streams"></a> -So far in this chapter, we’ve mostly stuck to individual futures. The one big -exception was the async channel we used. Recall how we used the receiver for our -async channel earlier in this chapter in the [“Message -Passing”][17-02-messages]<!-- ignore --> section. The async `recv` method -produces a sequence of items over time. This is an instance of a much more -general pattern known as a _stream_. +## Streams: Futures in Sequence -We saw a sequence of items back in Chapter 13, when we looked at the `Iterator` -trait in [The Iterator Trait and the `next` Method][iterator-trait]<!-- ignore ---> section, but there are two differences between iterators and the async -channel receiver. The first difference is time: iterators are synchronous, while -the channel receiver is asynchronous. The second is the API. When working -directly with `Iterator`, we call its synchronous `next` method. With the -`trpl::Receiver` stream in particular, we called an asynchronous `recv` method -instead. Otherwise, these APIs feel very similar, and that similarity -isn’t a coincidence. A stream is like an asynchronous form of iteration. Whereas -the `trpl::Receiver` specifically waits to receive messages, though, the -general-purpose stream API is much broader: it provides the next item the -way `Iterator` does, but asynchronously. +Recall how we used the receiver for our async channel earlier in this chapter +in the [“Message Passing”][17-02-messages]<!-- ignore --> section. The async +`recv` method produces a sequence of items over time. This is an instance of a +much more general pattern known as a _stream_. Many concepts are naturally +represented as streams: items becoming available in a queue, chunks of data +being pulled incrementally from the filesystem when the full data set is too +large for the computer’s memory, or data arriving over the network over time. +Because streams are futures, we can use them with any other kind of future and +combine them in interesting ways. For example, we can batch up events to avoid +triggering too many network calls, set timeouts on sequences of long-running +operations, or throttle user interface events to avoid doing needless work. + +We saw a sequence of items back in Chapter 13, when we looked at the Iterator +trait in [“The Iterator Trait and the `next` Method”][iterator-trait]<!-- +ignore --> section, but there are two differences between iterators and the +async channel receiver. The first difference is time: iterators are +synchronous, while the channel receiver is asynchronous. The second difference +is the API. When working directly with `Iterator`, we call its synchronous +`next` method. With the `trpl::Receiver` stream in particular, we called an +asynchronous `recv` method instead. Otherwise, these APIs feel very similar, +and that similarity isn’t a coincidence. A stream is like an asynchronous form +of iteration. Whereas the `trpl::Receiver` specifically waits to receive +messages, though, the general-purpose stream API is much broader: it provides +the next item the way `Iterator` does, but asynchronously. The similarity between iterators and streams in Rust means we can actually create a stream from any iterator. As with an iterator, we can work with a stream by calling its `next` method and then awaiting the output, as in Listing -17-30. +17-21, which won’t compile yet. -<Listing number="17-30" caption="Creating a stream from an iterator and printing its values" file-name="src/main.rs"> +<Listing number="17-21" caption="Creating a stream from an iterator and printing its values" file-name="src/main.rs"> ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-30/src/main.rs:stream}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-21/src/main.rs:stream}} ``` </Listing> -We start with an array of numbers, which we convert to an iterator and then call -`map` on to double all the values. Then we convert the iterator into a stream -using the `trpl::stream_from_iter` function. Next, we loop over the items in the -stream as they arrive with the `while let` loop. +We start with an array of numbers, which we convert to an iterator and then +call `map` on to double all the values. Then we convert the iterator into a +stream using the `trpl::stream_from_iter` function. Next, we loop over the +items in the stream as they arrive with the `while let` loop. -Unfortunately, when we try to run the code, it doesn’t compile, but instead it +Unfortunately, when we try to run the code, it doesn’t compile but instead reports that there’s no `next` method available: <!-- manual-regeneration -cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-30 +cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-21 cargo build copy only the error output --> -```console -error[E0599]: no method named `next` found for struct `Iter` in the current scope +```text +error[E0599]: no method named `next` found for struct `tokio_stream::iter::Iter` in the current scope --> src/main.rs:10:40 | 10 | while let Some(value) = stream.next().await { | ^^^^ | - = note: the full type name has been written to 'file:///projects/async-await/target/debug/deps/async_await-575db3dd3197d257.long-type-14490787947592691573.txt' - = note: consider using `--verbose` to print the full type name to the console = help: items from traits can only be used if the trait is in scope help: the following traits which provide `next` are implemented but not in scope; perhaps you want to import one of them | @@ -79,372 +82,31 @@ help: there is a method `try_next` with a similar name As this output explains, the reason for the compiler error is that we need the right trait in scope to be able to use the `next` method. Given our discussion -so far, you might reasonably expect that trait to be `Stream`, but it’s actually -`StreamExt`. Short for _extension_, `Ext` is a common pattern in the +so far, you might reasonably expect that trait to be `Stream`, but it’s +actually `StreamExt`. Short for _extension_, `Ext` is a common pattern in the Rust community for extending one trait with another. -We’ll explain the `Stream` and `StreamExt` traits in a bit more detail at the -end of the chapter, but for now all you need to know is that the `Stream` trait -defines a low-level interface that effectively combines the `Iterator` and -`Future` traits. `StreamExt` supplies a higher-level set of APIs on top of -`Stream`, including the `next` method as well as other utility methods similar -to those provided by the `Iterator` trait. `Stream` and `StreamExt` are not yet -part of Rust’s standard library, but most ecosystem crates use the same -definition. +The `Stream` trait defines a low-level interface that effectively combines the +`Iterator` and `Future` traits. `StreamExt` supplies a higher-level set of APIs +on top of `Stream`, including the `next` method as well as other utility +methods similar to those provided by the `Iterator` trait. `Stream` and +`StreamExt` are not yet part of Rust’s standard library, but most ecosystem +crates use similar definitions. -The fix to the compiler error is to add a `use` statement for `trpl::StreamExt`, -as in Listing 17-31. +The fix to the compiler error is to add a `use` statement for +`trpl::StreamExt`, as in Listing 17-22. -<Listing number="17-31" caption="Successfully using an iterator as the basis for a stream" file-name="src/main.rs"> +<Listing number="17-22" caption="Successfully using an iterator as the basis for a stream" file-name="src/main.rs"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-31/src/main.rs:all}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-22/src/main.rs:all}} ``` </Listing> With all those pieces put together, this code works the way we want! What’s more, now that we have `StreamExt` in scope, we can use all of its utility -methods, just as with iterators. For example, in Listing 17-32, we use the -`filter` method to filter out everything but multiples of three and five. - -<Listing number="17-32" caption="Filtering a stream with the `StreamExt::filter` method" file-name="src/main.rs"> - -```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-32/src/main.rs:all}} -``` - -</Listing> - -Of course, this isn’t very interesting, since we could do the same with normal -iterators and without any async at all. Let’s look at what -we can do that _is_ unique to streams. - -### Composing Streams - -Many concepts are naturally represented as streams: items becoming available in -a queue, chunks of data being pulled incrementally from the filesystem when the -full data set is too large for the computer’s memory, or data arriving over the -network over time. Because streams are futures, we can use them with any other -kind of future and combine them in interesting ways. For example, we can batch -up events to avoid triggering too many network calls, set timeouts on sequences -of long-running operations, or throttle user interface events to avoid doing -needless work. - -Let’s start by building a little stream of messages as a stand-in for a stream -of data we might see from a WebSocket or another real-time communication -protocol, as shown in Listing 17-33. - -<Listing number="17-33" caption="Using the `rx` receiver as a `ReceiverStream`" file-name="src/main.rs"> - -```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-33/src/main.rs:all}} -``` - -</Listing> - -First, we create a function called `get_messages` that returns `impl Stream<Item -= String>`. For its implementation, we create an async channel, loop over the -first 10 letters of the English alphabet, and send them across the channel. - -We also use a new type: `ReceiverStream`, which converts the `rx` receiver from -the `trpl::channel` into a `Stream` with a `next` method. Back in `main`, we use -a `while let` loop to print all the messages from the stream. - -When we run this code, we get exactly the results we would expect: - -<!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant; -the changes are likely to be due to the threads running differently rather than -changes in the compiler --> - -```text -Message: 'a' -Message: 'b' -Message: 'c' -Message: 'd' -Message: 'e' -Message: 'f' -Message: 'g' -Message: 'h' -Message: 'i' -Message: 'j' -``` - -Again, we could do this with the regular `Receiver` API or even the regular -`Iterator` API, though, so let’s add a feature that requires streams: adding a -timeout that applies to every item in the stream, and a delay on the items we -emit, as shown in Listing 17-34. - -<Listing number="17-34" caption="Using the `StreamExt::timeout` method to set a time limit on the items in a stream" file-name="src/main.rs"> - -```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-34/src/main.rs:timeout}} -``` - -</Listing> - -We start by adding a timeout to the stream with the `timeout` method, which -comes from the `StreamExt` trait. Then we update the body of the `while let` -loop, because the stream now returns a `Result`. The `Ok` variant indicates a -message arrived in time; the `Err` variant indicates that the timeout elapsed -before any message arrived. We `match` on that result and either print the -message when we receive it successfully or print a notice about the timeout. -Finally, notice that we pin the messages after applying the timeout to them, -because the timeout helper produces a stream that needs to be pinned to be -polled. - -However, because there are no delays between messages, this timeout does not -change the behavior of the program. Let’s add a variable delay to the messages -we send, as shown in Listing 17-35. - -<Listing number="17-35" caption="Sending messages through `tx` with an async delay without making `get_messages` an async function" file-name="src/main.rs"> - -```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-35/src/main.rs:messages}} -``` - -</Listing> - -In `get_messages`, we use the `enumerate` iterator method with the `messages` -array so that we can get the index of each item we’re sending along with the -item itself. Then we apply a 100-millisecond delay to even-index items and a -300-millisecond delay to odd-index items to simulate the different delays we -might see from a stream of messages in the real world. Because our timeout is -for 200 milliseconds, this should affect half of the messages. - -To sleep between messages in the `get_messages` function without blocking, we -need to use async. However, we can’t make `get_messages` itself into an async -function, because then we’d return a `Future<Output = Stream<Item = String>>` -instead of a `Stream<Item = String>>`. The caller would have to await -`get_messages` itself to get access to the stream. But remember: everything in a -given future happens linearly; concurrency happens _between_ futures. Awaiting -`get_messages` would require it to send all the messages, including the sleep -delay between each message, before returning the receiver stream. As a result, -the timeout would be useless. There would be no delays in the stream itself; -they would all happen before the stream was even available. - -Instead, we leave `get_messages` as a regular function that returns a stream, -and we spawn a task to handle the async `sleep` calls. - -> Note: Calling `spawn_task` in this way works because we already set up our -> runtime; had we not, it would cause a panic. Other implementations choose -> different tradeoffs: they might spawn a new runtime and avoid the panic but -> end up with a bit of extra overhead, or they may simply not provide a -> standalone way to spawn tasks without reference to a runtime. Make sure you -> know what tradeoff your runtime has chosen and write your code accordingly! - -Now our code has a much more interesting result. Between every other pair of -messages, a `Problem: Elapsed(())` error. - -<!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant; -the changes are likely to be due to the threads running differently rather than -changes in the compiler --> - -```text -Message: 'a' -Problem: Elapsed(()) -Message: 'b' -Message: 'c' -Problem: Elapsed(()) -Message: 'd' -Message: 'e' -Problem: Elapsed(()) -Message: 'f' -Message: 'g' -Problem: Elapsed(()) -Message: 'h' -Message: 'i' -Problem: Elapsed(()) -Message: 'j' -``` - -The timeout doesn’t prevent the messages from arriving in the end. We still get -all of the original messages, because our channel is _unbounded_: it can hold as -many messages as we can fit in memory. If the message doesn’t arrive before the -timeout, our stream handler will account for that, but when it polls the stream -again, the message may now have arrived. - -You can get different behavior if needed by using other kinds of channels or -other kinds of streams more generally. Let’s see one of those in practice by -combining a stream of time intervals with this stream of messages. - -### Merging Streams - -First, let’s create another stream, which will emit an item every millisecond if -we let it run directly. For simplicity, we can use the `sleep` function to send -a message on a delay and combine it with the same approach we used in -`get_messages` of creating a stream from a channel. The difference is that this -time, we’re going to send back the count of intervals that have elapsed, so the -return type will be `impl Stream<Item = u32>`, and we can call the function -`get_intervals` (see Listing 17-36). - -<Listing number="17-36" caption="Creating a stream with a counter that will be emitted once every millisecond" file-name="src/main.rs"> - -```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-36/src/main.rs:intervals}} -``` - -</Listing> - -We start by defining a `count` in the task. (We could define it outside the -task, too, but it’s clearer to limit the scope of any given variable.) Then we -create an infinite loop. Each iteration of the loop asynchronously sleeps for -one millisecond, increments the count, and then sends it over the channel. -Because this is all wrapped in the task created by `spawn_task`, all of -it—including the infinite loop—will get cleaned up along with the runtime. - -This kind of infinite loop, which ends only when the whole runtime gets torn -down, is fairly common in async Rust: many programs need to keep running -indefinitely. With async, this doesn’t block anything else, as long as there is -at least one await point in each iteration through the loop. - -Now, back in our main function’s async block, we can attempt to merge the -`messages` and `intervals` streams, as shown in Listing 17-37. - -<Listing number="17-37" caption="Attempting to merge the `messages` and `intervals` streams" file-name="src/main.rs"> - -```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-37/src/main.rs:main}} -``` - -</Listing> - -We start by calling `get_intervals`. Then we merge the `messages` and -`intervals` streams with the `merge` method, which combines multiple streams -into one stream that produces items from any of the source streams as soon as -the items are available, without imposing any particular ordering. Finally, we -loop over that combined stream instead of over `messages`. - -At this point, neither `messages` nor `intervals` needs to be pinned or mutable, -because both will be combined into the single `merged` stream. However, this -call to `merge` doesn’t compile! (Neither does the `next` call in the `while -let` loop, but we’ll come back to that.) This is because the two streams have -different types. The `messages` stream has the type `Timeout<impl Stream<Item = -String>>`, where `Timeout` is the type that implements `Stream` for a `timeout` -call. The `intervals` stream has the type `impl Stream<Item = u32>`. To merge -these two streams, we need to transform one of them to match the other. We’ll -rework the intervals stream, because messages is already in the basic format we -want and has to handle timeout errors (see Listing 17-38). - -<!-- We cannot directly test this one, because it never stops. --> - -<Listing number="17-38" caption="Aligning the type of the the `intervals` stream with the type of the `messages` stream" file-name="src/main.rs"> - -```rust,ignore -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-38/src/main.rs:main}} -``` - -</Listing> - -First, we can use the `map` helper method to transform the `intervals` into a -string. Second, we need to match the `Timeout` from `messages`. Because we don’t -actually _want_ a timeout for `intervals`, though, we can just create a timeout -which is longer than the other durations we are using. Here, we create a -10-second timeout with `Duration::from_secs(10)`. Finally, we need to make -`stream` mutable, so that the `while let` loop’s `next` calls can iterate -through the stream, and pin it so that it’s safe to do so. That gets us _almost_ -to where we need to be. Everything type checks. If you run this, though, there -will be two problems. First, it will never stop! You’ll need to stop it with -<span class="keystroke">ctrl-c</span>. Second, the messages from the English -alphabet will be buried in the midst of all the interval counter messages: - -<!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant; -the changes are likely to be due to the tasks running differently rather than -changes in the compiler --> - -```text ---snip-- -Interval: 38 -Interval: 39 -Interval: 40 -Message: 'a' -Interval: 41 -Interval: 42 -Interval: 43 ---snip-- -``` - -Listing 17-39 shows one way to solve these last two problems. - -<Listing number="17-39" caption="Using `throttle` and `take` to manage the merged streams" file-name="src/main.rs"> - -```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-39/src/main.rs:throttle}} -``` - -</Listing> - -First, we use the `throttle` method on the `intervals` stream so that it doesn’t -overwhelm the `messages` stream. _Throttling_ is a way of limiting the rate at -which a function will be called—or, in this case, how often the stream will be -polled. Once every 100 milliseconds should do, because that’s roughly how often -our messages arrive. - -To limit the number of items we will accept from a stream, we apply the `take` -method to the `merged` stream, because we want to limit the final output, not -just one stream or the other. - -Now when we run the program, it stops after pulling 20 items from the stream, -and the intervals don’t overwhelm the messages. We also don’t get `Interval: -100` or `Interval: 200` or so on, but instead get `Interval: 1`, `Interval: 2`, -and so on—even though we have a source stream that _can_ produce an event every -millisecond. That’s because the `throttle` call produces a new stream that wraps -the original stream so that the original stream gets polled only at the throttle -rate, not its own “native” rate. We don’t have a bunch of unhandled interval -messages we’re choosing to ignore. Instead, we never produce those interval -messages in the first place! This is the inherent “laziness” of Rust’s futures -at work again, allowing us to choose our performance characteristics. - -<!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant; -the changes are likely to be due to the threads running differently rather than -changes in the compiler --> - -```text -Interval: 1 -Message: 'a' -Interval: 2 -Interval: 3 -Problem: Elapsed(()) -Interval: 4 -Message: 'b' -Interval: 5 -Message: 'c' -Interval: 6 -Interval: 7 -Problem: Elapsed(()) -Interval: 8 -Message: 'd' -Interval: 9 -Message: 'e' -Interval: 10 -Interval: 11 -Problem: Elapsed(()) -Interval: 12 -``` - -There’s one last thing we need to handle: errors! With both of these -channel-based streams, the `send` calls could fail when the other side of the -channel closes—and that’s just a matter of how the runtime executes the futures -that make up the stream. Up until now, we’ve ignored this possibility by calling -`unwrap`, but in a well-behaved app, we should explicitly handle the error, at -minimum by ending the loop so we don’t try to send any more messages. Listing -17-40 shows a simple error strategy: print the issue and then `break` from the -loops. - -<Listing number="17-40" caption="Handling errors and shutting down the loops"> - -```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-40/src/main.rs:errors}} -``` - -</Listing> - -As usual, the correct way to handle a message send error will vary; just make -sure you have a strategy. - -Now that we’ve seen a bunch of async in practice, let’s take a step back and dig -into a few of the details of how `Future`, `Stream`, and the other key traits -Rust uses to make async work. +methods, just as with iterators. [17-02-messages]: ch17-02-concurrency-with-async.html#message-passing [iterator-trait]: ch13-02-iterators.html#the-iterator-trait-and-the-next-method diff --git a/src/ch17-05-traits-for-async.md b/src/ch17-05-traits-for-async.md index d4447a34b5..4b502ceafe 100644 --- a/src/ch17-05-traits-for-async.md +++ b/src/ch17-05-traits-for-async.md @@ -1,16 +1,17 @@ -## A Closer Look at the Traits for Async - <!-- Old headings. Do not remove or links may break. --> <a id="digging-into-the-traits-for-async"></a> -Throughout the chapter, we’ve used the `Future`, `Pin`, `Unpin`, `Stream`, and -`StreamExt` traits in various ways. So far, though, we’ve avoided getting too -far into the details of how they work or how they fit together, which is fine -most of the time for your day-to-day Rust work. Sometimes, though, you’ll -encounter situations where you’ll need to understand a few more of these -details. In this section, we’ll dig in just enough to help in those scenarios, -still leaving the _really_ deep dive for other documentation. +## A Closer Look at the Traits for Async + +Throughout the chapter, we’ve used the `Future`, `Stream`, and `StreamExt` +traits in various ways. So far, though, we’ve avoided getting too far into the +details of how they work or how they fit together, which is fine most of the +time for your day-to-day Rust work. Sometimes, though, you’ll encounter +situations where you’ll need to understand a few more of these traits’ details, +along with the `Pin` type and the `Unpin` trait. In this section, we’ll dig in +just enough to help in those scenarios, still leaving the _really_ deep dive +for other documentation. <!-- Old headings. Do not remove or links may break. --> @@ -37,28 +38,28 @@ haven’t seen before, so let’s walk through the definition piece by piece. First, `Future`’s associated type `Output` says what the future resolves to. This is analogous to the `Item` associated type for the `Iterator` trait. -Second, `Future` also has the `poll` method, which takes a special `Pin` -reference for its `self` parameter and a mutable reference to a `Context` type, -and returns a `Poll<Self::Output>`. We’ll talk more about `Pin` and -`Context` in a moment. For now, let’s focus on what the method returns, -the `Poll` type: +Second, `Future` has the `poll` method, which takes a special `Pin` reference +for its `self` parameter and a mutable reference to a `Context` type, and +returns a `Poll<Self::Output>`. We’ll talk more about `Pin` and `Context` in a +moment. For now, let’s focus on what the method returns, the `Poll` type: ```rust -enum Poll<T> { +pub enum Poll<T> { Ready(T), Pending, } ``` This `Poll` type is similar to an `Option`. It has one variant that has a value, -`Ready(T)`, and one which does not, `Pending`. `Poll` means something quite +`Ready(T)`, and one that does not, `Pending`. `Poll` means something quite different from `Option`, though! The `Pending` variant indicates that the future still has work to do, so the caller will need to check again later. The `Ready` -variant indicates that the future has finished its work and the `T` value is +variant indicates that the `Future` has finished its work and the `T` value is available. -> Note: With most futures, the caller should not call `poll` again after the -> future has returned `Ready`. Many futures will panic if polled again after +> Note: It’s rare to need to call `poll` directly, but if you do need to, keep +> in mind that with most futures, the caller should not call `poll` again after +> the future has returned `Ready`. Many futures will panic if polled again after > becoming ready. Futures that are safe to poll again will say so explicitly in > their documentation. This is similar to how `Iterator::next` behaves. @@ -99,20 +100,22 @@ loop { ``` If Rust compiled it to exactly that code, though, every `await` would be -blocking—exactly the opposite of what we were going for! Instead, Rust makes -sure that the loop can hand off control to something that can pause work on this +blocking—exactly the opposite of what we were going for! Instead, Rust ensures +that the loop can hand off control to something that can pause work on this future to work on other futures and then check this one again later. As we’ve seen, that something is an async runtime, and this scheduling and coordination work is one of its main jobs. -Earlier in the chapter, we described waiting on `rx.recv`. The `recv` call -returns a future, and awaiting the future polls it. We noted that a runtime will -pause the future until it’s ready with either `Some(message)` or `None` when the -channel closes. With our deeper understanding of the `Future` trait, and -specifically `Future::poll`, we can see how that works. The runtime knows the -future isn’t ready when it returns `Poll::Pending`. Conversely, the runtime -knows the future _is_ ready and advances it when `poll` returns -`Poll::Ready(Some(message))` or `Poll::Ready(None)`. +In the [“Sending Data Between Two Tasks Using Message +Passing”][message-passing]<!-- ignore --> section, we described waiting on +`rx.recv`. The `recv` call returns a future, and awaiting the future polls it. +We noted that a runtime will pause the future until it’s ready with either +`Some(message)` or `None` when the channel closes. With our deeper +understanding of the `Future` trait, and specifically `Future::poll`, we can +see how that works. The runtime knows the future isn’t ready when it returns +`Poll::Pending`. Conversely, the runtime knows the future _is_ ready and +advances it when `poll` returns `Poll::Ready(Some(message))` or +`Poll::Ready(None)`. The exact details of how a runtime does that are beyond the scope of this book, but the key is to see the basic mechanics of futures: a runtime _polls_ each @@ -122,28 +125,57 @@ yet ready. <!-- Old headings. Do not remove or links may break. --> <a id="pinning-and-the-pin-and-unpin-traits"></a> +<a id="the-pin-and-unpin-traits"></a> + +### The `Pin` Type and the `Unpin` Trait + +Back in Listing 17-13, we used the `trpl::join!` macro to await three +futures. However, it’s common to have a collection such as a vector containing +some number futures that won’t be known until runtime. Let’s change Listing +17-13 to the code in Listing 17-23 that puts the three futures into a vector +and calls the `trpl::join_all` function instead, which won’t compile yet. + +<Listing number="17-23" caption="Awaiting futures in a collection" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust,ignore,does_not_compile +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-23/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> -### The `Pin` and `Unpin` Traits +We put each future within a `Box` to make them into _trait objects_, just as +we did in the “Returning Errors from `run`” section in Chapter 12. (We’ll cover +trait objects in detail in Chapter 18.) Using trait objects lets us treat each +of the anonymous futures produced by these types as the same type, because all +of them implement the `Future` trait. -When we introduced the idea of pinning in Listing 17-16, we ran into a very -gnarly error message. Here is the relevant part of it again: +This might be surprising. After all, none of the async blocks returns anything, +so each one produces a `Future<Output = ()>`. Remember that `Future` is a +trait, though, and that the compiler creates a unique enum for each async +block, even when they have identical output types. Just as you can’t put two +different handwritten structs in a `Vec`, you can’t mix compiler-generated +enums. + +Then we pass the collection of futures to the `trpl::join_all` function and +await the result. However, this doesn’t compile; here’s the relevant part of +the error messages. <!-- manual-regeneration -cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-16 +cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-23 cargo build copy *only* the final `error` block from the errors --> ```text -error[E0277]: `{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}` cannot be unpinned +error[E0277]: `dyn Future<Output = ()>` cannot be unpinned --> src/main.rs:48:33 | 48 | trpl::join_all(futures).await; - | ^^^^^ the trait `Unpin` is not implemented for `{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}` + | ^^^^^ the trait `Unpin` is not implemented for `dyn Future<Output = ()>` | = note: consider using the `pin!` macro consider using `Box::pin` if you need to access the pinned value outside of the current scope - = note: required for `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}>` to implement `Future` + = note: required for `Box<dyn Future<Output = ()>>` to implement `Future` note: required by a bound in `futures_util::future::join_all::JoinAll` --> file:///home/.cargo/registry/src/index.crates.io-1949cf8c6b5b557f/futures-util-0.3.30/src/future/join_all.rs:29:8 | @@ -154,23 +186,26 @@ note: required by a bound in `futures_util::future::join_all::JoinAll` | ^^^^^^ required by this bound in `JoinAll` ``` -This error message tells us not only that we need to pin the values but also why -pinning is required. The `trpl::join_all` function returns a struct called -`JoinAll`. That struct is generic over a type `F`, which is constrained to -implement the `Future` trait. Directly awaiting a future with `await` pins the -future implicitly. That’s why we don’t need to use `pin!` everywhere we want to -await futures. +The note in this error message tells us that we should use the `pin!` macro to +_pin_ the values, which means putting them inside the `Pin` type that +guarantees the values won’t be moved in memory. The error message says pinning +is required because `dyn Future<Output = ()>` needs to implement the `Unpin` +trait and it currently does not. + +The `trpl::join_all` function returns a struct called `JoinAll`. That struct is +generic over a type `F`, which is constrained to implement the `Future` trait. +Directly awaiting a future with `await` pins the future implicitly. That’s why +we don’t need to use `pin!` everywhere we want to await futures. However, we’re not directly awaiting a future here. Instead, we construct a new -future, `JoinAll`, by passing a collection of futures to the `join_all` -function. The signature for `join_all` requires that the types of the items in -the collection all implement the `Future` trait, and `Box<T>` implements -`Future` only if the `T` it wraps is a future that implements the `Unpin` trait. +future, JoinAll, by passing a collection of futures to the `join_all` function. +The signature for `join_all` requires that the types of the items in the +collection all implement the `Future` trait, and `Box<T>` implements `Future` +only if the `T` it wraps is a future that implements the `Unpin` trait. That’s a lot to absorb! To really understand it, let’s dive a little further -into how the `Future` trait actually works, in particular around _pinning_. - -Look again at the definition of the `Future` trait: +into how the `Future` trait actually works, in particular around pinning. Look +again at the definition of the `Future` trait: ```rust use std::pin::Pin; @@ -190,11 +225,10 @@ of how that works are beyond the scope of this chapter, and you generally only need to think about this when writing a custom `Future` implementation. We’ll focus instead on the type for `self`, as this is the first time we’ve seen a method where `self` has a type annotation. A type annotation for `self` works -like type annotations for other function parameters, but with two key +like type annotations for other function parameters but with two key differences: - It tells Rust what type `self` must be for the method to be called. - - It can’t be just any type. It’s restricted to the type on which the method is implemented, a reference or smart pointer to that type, or a `Pin` wrapping a reference to that type. @@ -206,30 +240,30 @@ type. `Pin` is a wrapper for pointer-like types such as `&`, `&mut`, `Box`, and `Rc`. (Technically, `Pin` works with types that implement the `Deref` or `DerefMut` -traits, but this is effectively equivalent to working only with pointers.) `Pin` -is not a pointer itself and doesn’t have any behavior of its own like `Rc` and -`Arc` do with reference counting; it’s purely a tool the compiler can use to -enforce constraints on pointer usage. +traits, but this is effectively equivalent to working only with references and +smart pointers.) `Pin` is not a pointer itself and doesn’t have any behavior of +its own like `Rc` and `Arc` do with reference counting; it’s purely a tool the +compiler can use to enforce constraints on pointer usage. Recalling that `await` is implemented in terms of calls to `poll` starts to explain the error message we saw earlier, but that was in terms of `Unpin`, not `Pin`. So how exactly does `Pin` relate to `Unpin`, and why does `Future` need `self` to be in a `Pin` type to call `poll`? -Remember from earlier in this chapter a series of await points in a future get -compiled into a state machine, and the compiler makes sure that state machine -follows all of Rust’s normal rules around safety, including borrowing and -ownership. To make that work, Rust looks at what data is needed between one +Remember from earlier in this chapter that a series of await points in a future +get compiled into a state machine, and the compiler makes sure that state +machine follows all of Rust’s normal rules around safety, including borrowing +and ownership. To make that work, Rust looks at what data is needed between one await point and either the next await point or the end of the async block. It -then creates a corresponding variant in the compiled state machine. Each variant -gets the access it needs to the data that will be used in that section of the -source code, whether by taking ownership of that data or by getting a mutable or -immutable reference to it. +then creates a corresponding variant in the compiled state machine. Each +variant gets the access it needs to the data that will be used in that section +of the source code, whether by taking ownership of that data or by getting a +mutable or immutable reference to it. -So far, so good: if we get anything wrong about the ownership or references in a -given async block, the borrow checker will tell us. When we want to move around -the future that corresponds to that block—like moving it into a `Vec` to pass to -`join_all`—things get trickier. +So far, so good: if we get anything wrong about the ownership or references in +a given async block, the borrow checker will tell us. When we want to move +around the future that corresponds to that block—like moving it into a `Vec` to +pass to `join_all`—things get trickier. When we move a future—whether by pushing it into a data structure to use as an iterator with `join_all` or by returning it from a function—that actually means @@ -241,7 +275,7 @@ themselves in the fields of any given variant, as shown in the simplified illust <img alt="A single-column, three-row table representing a future, fut1, which has data values 0 and 1 in the first two rows and an arrow pointing from the third row back to the second row, representing an internal reference within the future." src="img/trpl17-04.svg" class="center" /> -<figcaption>Figure 17-4: A self-referential data type.</figcaption> +<figcaption>Figure 17-4: A self-referential data type</figcaption> </figure> @@ -266,7 +300,7 @@ Theoretically, the Rust compiler could try to update every reference to an object whenever it gets moved, but that could add a lot of performance overhead, especially if a whole web of references needs updating. If we could instead make sure the data structure in question _doesn’t move in memory_, we wouldn’t have -to update any references. This is exactly what Rust’s borrow checker requires: +to update any references. This is exactly what Rust’s borrow checker is for: in safe code, it prevents you from moving any item with an active reference to it. @@ -277,16 +311,16 @@ the `Box` pointer. Figure 17-6 illustrates this process. <figure> -<img alt="Three boxes laid out side by side. The first is labeled “Pin”, the second “b1”, and the third “pinned”. Within “pinned” is a table labeled “fut”, with a single column; it represents a future with cells for each part of the data structure. Its first cell has the value “0”, its second cell has an arrow coming out of it and pointing to the fourth and final cell, which has the value “1” in it, and the third cell has dashed lines and an ellipsis to indicate there may be other parts to the data structure. All together, the “fut” table represents a future which is self-referential. An arrow leaves the box labeled “Pin”, goes through the box labeled “b1” and has terminates inside the “pinned” box at the “fut” table." src="img/trpl17-06.svg" class="center" /> +<img alt="Three boxes laid out side by side. The first is labeled “Pin”, the second “b1”, and the third “pinned”. Within “pinned” is a table labeled “fut”, with a single column; it represents a future with cells for each part of the data structure. Its first cell has the value “0”, its second cell has an arrow coming out of it and pointing to the fourth and final cell, which has the value “1” in it, and the third cell has dashed lines and an ellipsis to indicate there may be other parts to the data structure. All together, the “fut” table represents a future which is self-referential. An arrow leaves the box labeled “Pin”, goes through the box labeled “b1” and terminates inside the “pinned” box at the “fut” table." src="img/trpl17-06.svg" class="center" /> -<figcaption>Figure 17-6: Pinning a `Box` that points to a self-referential future type.</figcaption> +<figcaption>Figure 17-6: Pinning a `Box` that points to a self-referential future type</figcaption> </figure> In fact, the `Box` pointer can still move around freely. Remember: we care about making sure the data ultimately being referenced stays in place. If a pointer -moves around, _but the data it points to is in the same place_, as in Figure -17-7, there’s no potential problem. As an independent exercise, look at the docs +moves around, _but the data it points to_ is in the same place, as in Figure +17-7, there’s no potential problem. (As an independent exercise, look at the docs for the types as well as the `std::pin` module and try to work out how you’d do this with a `Pin` wrapping a `Box`.) The key is that the self-referential type itself cannot move, because it is still pinned. @@ -295,21 +329,21 @@ itself cannot move, because it is still pinned. <img alt="Four boxes laid out in three rough columns, identical to the previous diagram with a change to the second column. Now there are two boxes in the second column, labeled “b1” and “b2”, “b1” is grayed out, and the arrow from “Pin” goes through “b2” instead of “b1”, indicating that the pointer has moved from “b1” to “b2”, but the data in “pinned” has not moved." src="img/trpl17-07.svg" class="center" /> -<figcaption>Figure 17-7: Moving a `Box` which points to a self-referential future type.</figcaption> +<figcaption>Figure 17-7: Moving a `Box` which points to a self-referential future type</figcaption> </figure> However, most types are perfectly safe to move around, even if they happen to be -behind a `Pin` wrapper. We only need to think about pinning when items have +behind a `Pin` pointer. We only need to think about pinning when items have internal references. Primitive values such as numbers and Booleans are safe -because they obviously don’t have any internal references. Neither do most types -you normally work with in Rust. You can move around a `Vec`, for example, -without worrying. Given only what we have seen so far, if you have a -`Pin<Vec<String>>`, you’d have to do everything via the safe but restrictive -APIs provided by `Pin`, even though a `Vec<String>` is always safe to move if -there are no other references to it. We need a way to tell the compiler that -it’s fine to move items around in cases like this—and that’s where `Unpin` comes -into play. +because they obviously don’t have any internal references. +Neither do most types you normally work with in Rust. You can move around +a `Vec`, for example, without worrying. Given what we have seen so far, if +you have a `Pin<Vec<String>>`, you’d have to do everything via the safe but +restrictive APIs provided by `Pin`, even though a `Vec<String>` is always safe +to move if there are no other references to it. We need a way to tell the +compiler that it’s fine to move items around in cases like this—and that’s +where `Unpin` comes into play. `Unpin` is a marker trait, similar to the `Send` and `Sync` traits we saw in Chapter 16, and thus has no functionality of its own. Marker traits exist only @@ -344,32 +378,45 @@ in Rust. <figure> -<img alt="Concurrent work flow" src="img/trpl17-08.svg" class="center" /> +<img alt="A box labeled “Pin” on the left with an arrow going from it to a box labeled “String” on the right. The “String” box contains the data 5usize, representing the length of the string, and the letters “h”, “e”, “l”, “l”, and “o” representing the characters of the string “hello” stored in this String instance. A dotted rectangle surrounds the “String” box and its label, but not the “Pin” box." src="img/trpl17-08.svg" class="center" /> -<figcaption>Figure 17-8: Pinning a `String`; the dotted line indicates that the `String` implements the `Unpin` trait, and thus is not pinned.</figcaption> +<figcaption>Figure 17-8: Pinning a `String`; the dotted line indicates that the `String` implements the `Unpin` trait and thus is not pinned</figcaption> </figure> As a result, we can do things that would be illegal if `String` implemented `!Unpin` instead, such as replacing one string with another at the exact same location in memory as in Figure 17-9. This doesn’t violate the `Pin` contract, -because `String` has no internal references that make it unsafe to move around! +because `String` has no internal references that make it unsafe to move around. That is precisely why it implements `Unpin` rather than `!Unpin`. <figure> -<img alt="Concurrent work flow" src="img/trpl17-09.svg" class="center" /> +<img alt="The same “hello” string data from the previous example, now labeled “s1” and grayed out. The “Pin” box from the previous example now points to a different String instance, one that is labeled “s2”, is valid, has a length of 7usize, and contains the characters of the string “goodbye”. s2 is surrounded by a dotted rectangle because it, too, implements the Unpin trait." src="img/trpl17-09.svg" class="center" /> -<figcaption>Figure 17-9: Replacing the `String` with an entirely different `String` in memory.</figcaption> +<figcaption>Figure 17-9: Replacing the `String` with an entirely different `String` in memory</figcaption> </figure> Now we know enough to understand the errors reported for that `join_all` call -from back in Listing 17-17. We originally tried to move the futures produced by +from back in Listing 17-23. We originally tried to move the futures produced by async blocks into a `Vec<Box<dyn Future<Output = ()>>>`, but as we’ve seen, -those futures may have internal references, so they don’t implement `Unpin`. -They need to be pinned, and then we can pass the `Pin` type into the `Vec`, -confident that the underlying data in the futures will _not_ be moved. +those futures may have internal references, so they don’t automatically +implement `Unpin`. Once we pin them, we can pass the resulting `Pin` type into +the `Vec`, confident that the underlying data in the futures will _not_ be +moved. Listing 17-24 shows how to fix the code by calling the `pin!` macro +where each of the three futures are defined and adjusting the trait object type. + +<Listing number="17-24" caption="Pinning the futures to enable moving them into the vector"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-24/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +This example now compiles and runs, and we could add or remove futures from the +vector at runtime and join them all. `Pin` and `Unpin` are mostly important for building lower-level libraries, or when you’re building a runtime itself, rather than for day-to-day Rust code. @@ -387,24 +434,26 @@ idea of how to fix your code! > if you’re interested in learning more, that’s a great place to start. > > If you want to understand how things work under the hood in even more detail, -> see Chapters [2][under-the-hood] and [4][pinning] of [_Asynchronous -> Programming in Rust_][async-book]. +> see Chapters [2][under-the-hood]<!-- ignore --> and +> [4][pinning]<!-- ignore --> of +> [_Asynchronous Programming in Rust_][async-book]. ### The `Stream` Trait Now that you have a deeper grasp on the `Future`, `Pin`, and `Unpin` traits, we can turn our attention to the `Stream` trait. As you learned earlier in the chapter, streams are similar to asynchronous iterators. Unlike `Iterator` and -`Future`, however, `Stream` has no definition in the standard library as of this -writing, but there _is_ a very common definition from the `futures` crate used -throughout the ecosystem. +`Future`, however, `Stream` has no definition in the standard library as of +this writing, but there _is_ a very common definition from the `futures` crate +used throughout the ecosystem. Let’s review the definitions of the `Iterator` and `Future` traits before looking at how a `Stream` trait might merge them together. From `Iterator`, we -have the idea of a sequence: its `next` method provides an `Option<Self::Item>`. -From `Future`, we have the idea of readiness over time: its `poll` method -provides a `Poll<Self::Output>`. To represent a sequence of items that become -ready over time, we define a `Stream` trait that puts those features together: +have the idea of a sequence: its `next` method provides an +`Option<Self::Item>`. From `Future`, we have the idea of readiness over time: +its `poll` method provides a `Poll<Self::Output>`. To represent a sequence of +items that become ready over time, we define a `Stream` trait that puts those +features together: ```rust use std::pin::Pin; @@ -434,15 +483,16 @@ because it needs to signal whether there are more messages, just as an iterator does. Something very similar to this definition will likely end up as part of Rust’s -standard library. In the meantime, it’s part of the toolkit of most runtimes, so -you can rely on it, and everything we cover next should generally apply! +standard library. In the meantime, it’s part of the toolkit of most runtimes, +so you can rely on it, and everything we cover next should generally apply! -In the example we saw in the section on streaming, though, we didn’t use -`poll_next` _or_ `Stream`, but instead used `next` and `StreamExt`. We _could_ -work directly in terms of the `poll_next` API by hand-writing our own `Stream` -state machines, of course, just as we _could_ work with futures directly via -their `poll` method. Using `await` is much nicer, though, and the `StreamExt` -trait supplies the `next` method so we can do just that: +In the examples we saw in the [“Streams: Futures in Sequence”][streams]<!-- +ignore --> section, though, we didn’t use `poll_next` _or_ `Stream`, but +instead used `next` and `StreamExt`. We _could_ work directly in terms of the +`poll_next` API by hand-writing our own `Stream` state machines, of course, +just as we _could_ work with futures directly via their `poll` method. Using +`await` is much nicer, though, and the `StreamExt` trait supplies the `next` +method so we can do just that: ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/src/lib.rs:here}} @@ -482,9 +532,11 @@ That’s all we’re going to cover for the lower-level details on these traits. wrap up, let’s consider how futures (including streams), tasks, and threads all fit together! +[message-passing]: ch17-02-concurrency-with-async.md#sending-data-between-two-tasks-using-message-passing [ch-18]: ch18-00-oop.html [async-book]: https://rust-lang.github.io/async-book/ [under-the-hood]: https://rust-lang.github.io/async-book/02_execution/01_chapter.html [pinning]: https://rust-lang.github.io/async-book/04_pinning/01_chapter.html [first-async]: ch17-01-futures-and-syntax.html#our-first-async-program [any-number-futures]: ch17-03-more-futures.html#working-with-any-number-of-futures +[streams]: ch17-04-streams.html diff --git a/src/ch17-06-futures-tasks-threads.md b/src/ch17-06-futures-tasks-threads.md index 9830087849..b78902a38e 100644 --- a/src/ch17-06-futures-tasks-threads.md +++ b/src/ch17-06-futures-tasks-threads.md @@ -2,18 +2,17 @@ As we saw in [Chapter 16][ch16]<!-- ignore -->, threads provide one approach to concurrency. We’ve seen another approach in this chapter: using async with -futures and streams. If you‘re wondering when to choose method over the other, +futures and streams. If you’re wondering when to choose one method over the other, the answer is: it depends! And in many cases, the choice isn’t threads _or_ async but rather threads _and_ async. Many operating systems have supplied threading-based concurrency models for decades now, and many programming languages support them as a result. However, these models are not without their tradeoffs. On many operating systems, they -use a fair bit of memory for each thread, and they come with some overhead for -starting up and shutting down. Threads are also only an option when your -operating system and hardware support them. Unlike mainstream desktop and mobile -computers, some embedded systems don’t have an OS at all, so they also don’t -have threads. +use a fair bit of memory for each thread. Threads are also only an option when +your operating system and hardware support them. Unlike mainstream desktop and +mobile computers, some embedded systems don’t have an OS at all, so they also +don’t have threads. The async model provides a different—and ultimately complementary—set of tradeoffs. In the async model, concurrent operations don’t require their own @@ -22,62 +21,25 @@ kick off work from a synchronous function in the streams section. A task is similar to a thread, but instead of being managed by the operating system, it’s managed by library-level code: the runtime. -In the previous section, we saw that we could build a stream by using an async -channel and spawning an async task we could call from synchronous code. We can -do the exact same thing with a thread. In Listing 17-40, we used -`trpl::spawn_task` and `trpl::sleep`. In Listing 17-41, we replace those with -the `thread::spawn` and `thread::sleep` APIs from the standard library in the -`get_intervals` function. - -<Listing number="17-41" caption="Using the `std::thread` APIs instead of the async `trpl` APIs for the `get_intervals` function" file-name="src/main.rs"> - -```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-41/src/main.rs:threads}} -``` - -</Listing> - -If you run this code, the output is identical to that of Listing 17-40. And -notice how little changes here from the perspective of the calling code. What’s -more, even though one of our functions spawned an async task on the runtime and -the other spawned an OS thread, the resulting streams were unaffected by the -differences. - -Despite their similarities, these two approaches behave very differently, -although we might have a hard time measuring it in this very simple example. We -could spawn millions of async tasks on any modern personal computer. If we tried -to do that with threads, we would literally run out of memory! - -However, there’s a reason these APIs are so similar. Threads act as a boundary -for sets of synchronous operations; concurrency is possible _between_ threads. -Tasks act as a boundary for sets of _asynchronous_ operations; concurrency is -possible both _between_ and _within_ tasks, because a task can switch between -futures in its body. Finally, futures are Rust’s most granular unit of -concurrency, and each future may represent a tree of other futures. The -runtime—specifically, its executor—manages tasks, and tasks manage futures. In -that regard, tasks are similar to lightweight, runtime-managed threads with -added capabilities that come from being managed by a runtime instead of by the -operating system. +There’s a reason the APIs for spawning threads and spawning tasks are so +similar. Threads act as a boundary for sets of synchronous operations; +concurrency is possible _between_ threads. Tasks act as a boundary for sets of +_asynchronous_ operations; concurrency is possible both _between_ and _within_ +tasks, because a task can switch between futures in its body. Finally, futures +are Rust’s most granular unit of concurrency, and each future may represent a +tree of other futures. The runtime—specifically, its executor—manages tasks, +and tasks manage futures. In that regard, tasks are similar to lightweight, +runtime-managed threads with added capabilities that come from being managed by +a runtime instead of by the operating system. This doesn’t mean that async tasks are always better than threads (or vice versa). Concurrency with threads is in some ways a simpler programming model than concurrency with `async`. That can be a strength or a weakness. Threads are somewhat “fire and forget”; they have no native equivalent to a future, so they simply run to completion without being interrupted except by the operating -system itself. That is, they have no built-in support for _intratask -concurrency_ the way futures do. Threads in Rust also have no mechanisms for -cancellation—a subject we haven’t covered explicitly in this chapter but was -implied by the fact that whenever we ended a future, its state got cleaned up -correctly. - -These limitations also make threads harder to compose than futures. It’s much -more difficult, for example, to use threads to build helpers such as the -`timeout` and `throttle` methods we built earlier in this chapter. The fact that -futures are richer data structures means they can be composed together more -naturally, as we have seen. - -Tasks, then, give us _additional_ control over futures, allowing us to choose -where and how to group them. And it turns out that threads and tasks often work +system itself. + +And it turns out that threads and tasks often work very well together, because tasks can (at least in some runtimes) be moved around between threads. In fact, under the hood, the runtime we’ve been using—including the `spawn_blocking` and `spawn_task` functions—is multithreaded @@ -88,46 +50,50 @@ approach actually requires threads _and_ tasks, and therefore futures. When thinking about which method to use when, consider these rules of thumb: -- If the work is _very parallelizable_, such as processing a bunch of data where - each part can be processed separately, threads are a better choice. -- If the work is _very concurrent_, such as handling messages from a bunch of - different sources that may come in at different intervals or different rates, - async is a better choice. +- If the work is _very parallelizable_ (that is, CPU-bound), such as processing + a bunch of data where each part can be processed separately, threads are a + better choice. +- If the work is _very concurrent_ (that is, I/O-bound), such as handling + messages from a bunch of different sources that may come in at different + intervals or different rates, async is a better choice. And if you need both parallelism and concurrency, you don’t have to choose -between threads and async. You can use them together freely, letting each one -play the part it’s best at. For example, Listing 17-42 shows a fairly common +between threads and async. You can use them together freely, letting each +play the part it’s best at. For example, Listing 17-25 shows a fairly common example of this kind of mix in real-world Rust code. -<Listing number="17-42" caption="Sending messages with blocking code in a thread and awaiting the messages in an async block" file-name="src/main.rs"> +<Listing number="17-25" caption="Sending messages with blocking code in a thread and awaiting the messages in an async block" file-name="src/main.rs"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-42/src/main.rs:all}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-25/src/main.rs:all}} ``` </Listing> -We begin by creating an async channel, then spawn a thread that takes -ownership of the sender side of the channel. Within the thread, we send the -numbers 1 through 10, sleeping for a second between each. Finally, we run a -future created with an async block passed to `trpl::run` just as we have -throughout the chapter. In that future, we await those messages, just as in -the other message-passing examples we have seen. +We begin by creating an async channel, then spawning a thread that takes +ownership of the sender side of the channel using the `move` keyword. Within +the thread, we send the numbers 1 through 10, sleeping for a second between +each. Finally, we run a future created with an async block passed to +`trpl::block_on` just as we have throughout the chapter. In that future, we +await those messages, just as in the other message-passing examples we have +seen. To return to the scenario we opened the chapter with, imagine running a set of video encoding tasks using a dedicated thread (because video encoding is -compute-bound) but notifying the UI that those operations are done with an async -channel. There are countless examples of these kinds of combinations in +compute-bound) but notifying the UI that those operations are done with an +async channel. There are countless examples of these kinds of combinations in real-world use cases. ## Summary This isn’t the last you’ll see of concurrency in this book. The project in -[Chapter 21][ch21] will apply these concepts in a more realistic situation -than the simpler examples discussed here and compare problem-solving with threading versus tasks more directly. +[Chapter 21][ch21]<!-- ignore --> will apply these concepts in a more realistic +situation than the simpler examples discussed here and compare problem-solving +with threading versus tasks and futures more directly. -No matter which of these approaches you choose, Rust gives you the tools you need to write safe, fast, concurrent -code—whether for a high-throughput web server or an embedded operating system. +No matter which of these approaches you choose, Rust gives you the tools you +need to write safe, fast, concurrent code—whether for a high-throughput web +server or an embedded operating system. Next, we’ll talk about idiomatic ways to model problems and structure solutions as your Rust programs get bigger. In addition, we’ll discuss how Rust’s idioms